Negative Effects Of The Columbian Exchange - 1498 Words

In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue. This was the very first step in starting the Columbian exchange. The Columbian exchange was the process of the New World and the Old World transferring ideas, plants, animals, culture, human populations, and manufactured goods across the Atlantic Ocean throughout the 15th and the 16th century. Even though there were many positive results out of the exchange including the finding of the Americas, new plant and animal species, and the Europeans gaining more land to grow their Old-World crops, the overall effects were negative. The Columbian exchange was not as successful as it was made out to be because there were over ten major disease outbreaks in both the Old and New world, Europeans†¦show more content†¦Although there is very few examples of diseases spreading from the New World to the Old World, that does not mean they weren’t as devastating as the Old-World diseases. Syphilis is a New World disease that was fata l and had severe symptoms. They included genital ulcers, rashes, large tumors, severe pain, dementia, and eventual death. Over time, as the disease evolved, its symptoms changed, becoming more benign and less fatal (Nunn and Qian, p.4). There are two theories of the origins of syphilis is one being the â€Å"Columbian hypothesis† and the other being the â€Å"pre-Columbian hypothesis†. The Columbian hypothesis states that the disease-causing agent Treponema pallidum originated in the New World and was spread in 1493 by Christopher Columbus and his crew who acquired it from the native people of Hispaniola through sexual contact. When men joined the military campaign in Spain they would bring back prostitutes in their camp sites which would amplify the disease throughout Europe when they returned. The pre-Columbian hypothesis states that syphilis has always been in the Old World. since no accounts of the disease were made prior to the 1490s because it could not be differ entiated from other disease with similar symptoms, it was made to believe that it was always around just not classified yet. Many human populations were decimated byShow MoreRelatedEssay on Positive and Negative Effects of the Columbian Exchange788 Words   |  4 PagesAlthough Columbuss revelation of the New World to the Old World caused deadly diseases to both hemispheres, a loss of preservation of native American culture in the New World, and the unhealthy effect of tobacco in the Old World, it made an overall positive impact in lasting terms by the introduction of religion and horses and cattle in the New World and the new agriculture advancements and alpacas. The Eastern-Western hemisphere encounter was obviously positive in the Western hemisphere becauseRead MoreThe Positive Effects Of The Columbian Exchange1051 Words   |  5 PagesThe Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, human populations, diseases, cultures, and ideas throughout the world. The new worlds that had been discovered were a part of this Columbian Exchange, and were exposed to many new and foreign goods as well as people. The Americas, or New World, were faced with harsh treatment from Columbus and his crew, along with the rampant spread of new diseases that took a large toll on the Native populations. The Indies were alsoRead MoreThe Positive Effects Of The Columbian Exchange1643 Words   |  7 PagesThe term â€Å"Columbian Exchange† refers to the massive transfer of life between the Afro-Eurasian and American hemispheres that was precipitated by Columbus’ voyage to the New World . It was known as the widespread interchange of plants, animals, diseases, culture, human populations and technology between Europe and the Americas. After Columbus’ arrival to the Americas, the plant, animal and bacterial life b egan to mix between the Americas, which was also referred to as the â€Å"New World† and Europe,Read MorePositive Effects Of The Columbian Exchange703 Words   |  3 Pagesthe time period known as the Columbian Exchange. Most of what the Europeans took from the Exchange was good, but some of what they brought was devastating to the people in the New World. Although, this time period was very brutal for the Native Americans, the Columbian Exchange resulted in the transmitting of new technologies, an increase in remedies and cures for diseases, and a growth in resources such as food that helped to improve life. During the Columbian Exchange there were civilizations thatRead MoreThe Cultural Impacts Of The Columbian Exchange775 Words   |  4 PagesThe Columbian Exchange By definition, the Columbian Exchange is described as the transatlantic flow of goods, people, and diseases, beginning with Christopher Columbus’s voyages and discovery of the New World in 1492. (Give Me Liberty!) This interpretation, however, does not give this event the acknowledgement it deserves, as the effects of this complex transaction made a significant impact of the modern history of the world. It completely shaped the world humans live in today, from the languagesRead MoreWhat Was The Columbian Exchange? Essay1618 Words   |  7 Pagesresult of this was The Columbian Exchange in which there was a large trade of animals, plants, technology, culture, slaves, diseases, and even new religions. This exchange effected the way Europeans, Americans, Asians, and Africans lived their daily lives. The Columbian exchange was by far one of the most paramount events in the history of world technology, agriculture, culture, and ecology. In this research paper the following will b e answered: What is the Columbian Exchange? Plants and animals transportedRead Morecolumbian exchange817 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ The Columbian Exchange The Columbian exchange created an enormous interchange of various political ideas, cultures, foods, diseases, animals, and people between the old world and the new world, this give and take relationship caused many changes some positive and some negative between the two areas and help redistribute resources between the two hemispheres. There were many positive things that happened as a result of the Columbian exchange. Potatoes and corn became major food sources forRead MoreAmerica Before Columbus And The Columbian Exchange1597 Words   |  7 Pagesthe fact that it was not merely the arrival of conquistadors and colonists that irrevocably changed the landscape of the Americas, but that it was also the coined term known as the â€Å"Columbian Exchange† that afforded these travelers the ability to proliferate so successfully. The basic definition of the Columbian exchange is one that defines the importation of European flora and fauna. It could also loosely represent other imports, both intended and unintended, such as tools, implements, and even diseaseRead MoreThe Age Of Exploration : John Winthrop1546 Words   |  7 Pagesquotes of the first Governor of Massachusetts, John Winthrop. The Age of Exploration ultimately had a more negative impact on the New World because of the invasion of European plantlife, the spread of disease, and the development of the Transatlantic Slave Trade The Age of Exploration contains both benefits and harms to the groups of people, animals, and land that is associated. The damaging effects of the Age of Exploration were directed, for the most part, upon the people and land of the New WorldRead MoreColumbian Exchange Dbq889 Words   |  4 PagesColumbian Exchange BBQ The Columbian Exchange was a major milestone in the diffusion of the New and Old World. In 1492, Columbus arrived in the Bahamas(2), where he first came in contact with Native Americans. There, both exchanged their cultures such as crops, animals, metals, and germs, hence the name, Colombian Exchange. This has brought about both positive and negative effects. While some negative impacts are exemplified by the near-genocide of Amerindians, the demerits are outweighed by the

Phenemenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory Free Essays

In the field of marketing, qualitative methods had to strive to gain a foothold against quantitative methods. Qualitative methods have had the disadvantage of being considered less objective and non-systematic. Such views urged researchers to establish methodologies apt to reflect the integrity of qualitative methods. We will write a custom essay sample on Phenemenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper will discuss three methodologies utilized in the field of marketing: phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory. Each of these will be identified and later compared with each of the others. In doing so, a better understanding of the scope and application of these methodologies is hoped to be attained. Key Characteristics of the Three Methods Phenomenology Phenomenology is a critical reflection on immediate experience and attempts to uncover the features of such (Goulding 2005). It therefore discounts subconscious underpinnings of conscious experiences and attempts to deconstruct the meaning of such experiences at face value. The view is that what we take as latent meanings are actually reflected in manifest experiences as our realities are in actuality constructed (Schipper 1999). What phenomenology attempts to grasp in its study is the deeper meaning of the lived experience in terms of the individual’s relationship with time, space, and personal history (Goulding 2005). Phenomenology gains basis on several assumptions. First, is assumed that persons approach life with stored knowledge which engenders familiarity with given situations (Goulding 2005). However, this knowledge is always incomplete and thus constantly open-ended. Individuals have the capacity however to communicate their experiences with others. Here we come to the second assumption, that language, being the medium of communicating meaning, already establishes a relationship between the individual experience and the object of experience (Goulding 2005). As a result, the common meanings of words are taken as regards what are actually pertained to. Considering that experiences are always open-ended there is an infinite stream of words and concepts that may be used to define particular situations. This allows for the putting aside of the subconscious analysis of text. In the analysis of such data on face value another premise emerges as support, that of a level of commonality among persons thereby affirming the stability of language constructs as communicated to others (Goulding 2005). Should it be the case that present language no longer serves to reflect the lived out experience, individuals may always draw on novel words or metaphors (Schipper 1999). The process of sampling in phenomenology is purposive as data is deemed to be collected from only one source, individuals who have actually gone through the subject experience in the study. Upon collection of the data gathered, texts are read through as a whole or in full (Goulding 2005). After gaining a sense of the holistic portrayal of the text, patterns and differences are sought in the different accounts, a process called intertextuality. The strategy is utilized in order to broaden the analysis to include a wider range of considerations that aid the researcher to form a comprehensive interpretation. Generalizations at a theoretical level are not attempted by phenomenologists as they do not consider themselves theorists. However, recontextualisation is practiced through the sensitisation of previous works as a result of writing and rewriting thus providing the researcher with more universal insights as to established theories. Ethnography Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology. It is the full or partial description of a group as a means of identifying commonalities (Goulding 2005). The driving philosophy behind ethnography is a concern for the nature, construction and maintenance of culture (Goulding 2005). The detached researcher is thus dispelled by such methodology as the researcher is forced to immerse himself in the field and is required to accommodate the native understanding with his own scientific background (Stanton 2005). The aim of ethnographers is to surpass what people say and to look at the culture itself. The application necessarily entails prolonged interaction with member of the particular group being studied in order to find holistic explanations. The process of ethnography focuses on field work as it is necessary that group members be observed in their natural setting. Of importance is the attainment of the genuine narrative of natives to a particular culture. Such data is the ultimate objective of ethnography in a given locality. The reflexive nature of ethnography, while constraining it to adapt to the changes undergone in cultural settings, enables it to utilize different media of recording data. Yet ethnography holds no presumptions regarding the face value of data collected. All data need to be verified and tested for validity as they are taken as mere inferences from which patterns of hypotheses may be identified (Goulding 2005). The process is delineated from the starting point of content analysis. Content analysis is the process of scrutinizing a text and labeling parts of the same based on established concepts (Goulding 2005). There are two perspectives which may be applied in the analysis of data. The emic perspective is from the insider viewpoint and is considered the very heart of the culture while the etic perspective is the outsider view drawing from scientific perspectives (Goulding 2005). An ethnographer may be said to have comprehended the subject of the study when he is able to provide the emic perspective from the data gathered. It is assumed that the language of scientific researcher is not sufficient to communicate the experience of the subjects of study (Stanton 2005). After analysis, synthesis is then made through the pooling of the data and the integration of the constructed categories. Given that the established concepts thus far are largely context relative, recontextualisation is needed and is the last step of the process. This final step provides for the abstraction of conclusions to such a level that they are externally valid and generalizable thus producing new or expanded theories (Stanton 2005). How to cite Phenemenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory, Papers

Lukes Three Dimensions of Power Essay Example For Students

Lukes Three Dimensions of Power Essay Lukes Three Dimensions of PowerPower serves to create power. Powerlessness serves to re-enforcepowerlessness(Gaventa,1980:256). Such is the essence of the on goingrelationship between the Powerful and the Powerless of the Appalachian Valleywhere acquiescence of the repressed has become not only common practice but away of life and a means of survival. In his novel Power and Powerlessness, JohnGaventa examines the oppressive and desperate situation of the Appalachian coalminers under the autocratic power of absentee land-owners, local elites, andcorrupt union leaders. His analyses is based on Lukes three-dimensionalunderstanding of power from his book Power: A Radical View. Gaventa applies thethree notions of power to the politics of inequalities in the Appalachian Valleyand, while demonstrating the inadequacies of the first or pluralist approachand the merits of the second and particularly the third dimensions, asserts thatthe interrelationship and reinforcing affect of all three dim ensions isnecessary for an in depth understanding of the total impact of power upon theactions or inactions and conceptions of the powerless(Gaventa:256)This essay will examine Lukes three power dimensions and theirapplicability to Gaventas account of the inequities found in the valleys of theCumberland Mountains. Reasons for the mountain peoples submission and non-participation will be recognized and their nexus with the power relationshipestablished. In this way, Gaventas dissatisfaction with the pluralist approachwill be justified and the emphatic ability of the other two dimensions towithhold issues and shape behaviour will be verified as principal agents ofPower and Powerlessness. The one dimensional view of power is often called the pluralistapproach and emphasizes the exercise of power through decision making andobservable behaviour. Robert Dahl, a major proponent of this view, definespower as occurring in a situation where A has power over B to the extent he canget B to do something that B would not otherwise do(Dahl as cited in Lukes,1974:11). As power therefore is defined in terms of B and the extent to whichA prevails is determined by its higher ratio of successes and defeats over B. Observable behaviour then becomes a key factor in the pluralist approachto power. Dahls Who Governs? expresses the pluralist belief that thepolitical arena is an open system where everyone may participate and expressgrievances which in turn lead to decision making. Those who proposealternatives and initiate issues which contribute to the decision making processare demonstrating observable influence and control over those who failed alltogether to express any interest in the political process. The Pluralist approach assumes that in an open system, all people, notjust the elite, would participate in decision making if they felt stronglyenough about an issue and wanted their values to be expressed and represented. Non-participation therefore is thought to express a lack of grievances and aconsensus with the way the leaders are already handling the system. Politicalinaction is not a problem within the one-dimensional system, it merely reflectsapathy of ordinary citizens with little interest or knowledge for politicalmatters, and their acceptance of the existing system which they see as rewardingmutual benefits to society. While politics is primarily an elite concern to the pluralist, ordinarypeople can have a say if they become organized, and everyone has indirectinfluence through the right to the franchise in the electoral process. Pluralism recognizes a heterogeneous society composed of people belonging tovarious groups with differing and competing interests. Conflict is thereforealso recognized as not only an expected result but as a necessary instrumentwhich enables the determination of a ruling class in terms of who the winner is. Dahl,(as cited in Lukes,1974:18) states:Who prevails in decision-making seems the best way to determine which individual and groups havemore power in social life because direct conflictbetween actors presents a situation most approximatingan experimental test of their capacities to affect outcome. Both Lukes and Gaventa put forward the notion that restricting youranalyses of a power situation to the one dimensional model can skew yourconclusions. If you limit yourself to this approach your study will be impairedby a pluralistic biased view of power. Where the first dimension sees power inits manifest functions of decision making over key issues raising observableconflict due to policies raised through political participation, it ignores theunobservable mechanisms of power that are sometimes just as or even moreimportant. Many times power is exercised to prevent an issue from being raised andto discourage participation in the political arena. Potential issues andgrievances are therefore not voiced and to assume this means that they do notexist would be an outright deviation from fact. By restricting analyses to whatis expressed and to observable behaviour and overt conflict only, you miss anypreference not expressed because of fear of sanctions, manipulation, coercionand force. This critique of the behaviourial focus and the recognition ofunobservable factors of power is discussed in the two-dimensional view of powerdeveloped by Bachrach and Baratz by which power is exercised not just uponparticipants within the decision making process but also towards the exclusionof certain participants and issues altogether(Schattsneider, as cited inLukes,1974:16). This theory proposes that political organizations develop amobilization of bias in favour of the exploitation of certain kinds ofconflict and the suppression of others some issues are organized in whileothers are organized out(Ibid.,16). The first dimension claims there is an open system and althoughadmitting that political resources are not distributed equally, they are alsonot centralized in one groups hands. Everyone has the opportunity to use otherresources and be heard. The second approach however, sees a monopolistic systemof inequalities created and maintained by the dominant power. The elite havethe means and the political resources to prevent political action that would notbenefit themselves and to push forward those that would. The Elite thereforedetermine the agenda of both decision making and non-decision making and in sodoing establish their dominance and the subordinance and compliance of those onthe bottom of the power hierarchy. Although the two dimensional approach to power delves deeper than thefirst into the nature of power and powerlessness by involving analyses ofpotential issues, grievances, nondecision-making and non-participation, BothLukes and Gaventa find that it is on the same level as the first dimension inthat it also emphasizes observable conflict only.Of course it is true thatthe first does stress only overt while the second stresses both overt and/orcovert conflict. Nonetheless, an affinity between the two results in theirbelief that where there is conflict, there is an element of power in decisionmaking and, for the second dimension, in nondecision-making. Barach and Baratz(as cited in Lukes,1974:19) states that if there is no conflict, overt orcovert, the presumption must be that there is consensus on the prevailingallocation of values, in which case nondecision-making is impossible. Here,there is obviously no consideration of latent conflict or attention as to howinterests not consciously articulated may fit into the power relationship. Lukes identifies manipulation and authority as two forms of power whichdo not necessarily involve evident conflict. People abide by the power ofauthority because they either respect or accept its legitimacy. Compliance tothe power of manipulation often goes unrecognized by the conformer because focusis placed on irrelevant matters and the key aim is downplayed. In neither isthere observable (overt or covert) conflict, but latent conflict occurs becausethe individual may be agreeing to something contrary to their interests withouteven knowing. The three dimensional view of power then, criticizes the behaviourialfocus of the first two dimensions and adopts the consideration of hidden socialforces and conflict which exercise influence by shaping the consciousness of theindividual or organization. This view strays from the others in that it focusesnot only on decisions and nondecisions but on other ways to control thepolitical agenda which are not made deliberately by the choice of individuals orgroups. The third mechanism of power seeks to identify the means through whichpower influences, shapes or determines conceptions of necessities, possibilities,and strategies of challenge in situation of conflict(Gaventa,1980:15). Inother words, it involves specifying how A gets B to believe and choose to act ina way that reinforces the bias of the system, advancing the cause of A andimpairing that of B, usually in the form of compliance. Such processes can take place in a direct and intended way through mediaand communication. A takes control of the information channels and B issocialized into accepting, believing and even supporting the political notionsinstilled by A. The shaping of individuals conceptions can also take placeindirectly or even unintentionally through ones membership in a social structure. Patterns of behaviour, norms and accepted standards apparent in the action andinaction of the group are automatically adopted. Social legitimations aredeveloped around the dominant, and instilled as beliefs or roles in thedominated (Gaventa,1980:15). Passive acceptance of situations or circumstances that are in conflictwith ones interests occur even when the subordinated realise they are beingrepressed. They submit quietly because of fear of sanctions but also becausethey have gone through a psychological adaptation to the state of being withoutpower (Gaventa:16). They recognize their powerlessness and see no possibilityto reverse it and therefore submit to their hopeless situation with lethargicacceptance. Iliad Aias EssayWithin the Appalachian area itself there developed a local elite who rankednext in the class hierarchy. They were the men of wealth, and fine backgrounds,and politics was not new for them(Gaventa,1980:59). They were usually those inpositions of political leadership where they could benefit the company andpromote its best interests. Next were a class of small entrepreneurs andprofessionals who were attracted to the booming city by its promising commercialfuture. The bottom of the hierarchy consisted of labourers, miners and othermanual labour workers. This class was composed mainly of those who wereoriginally from the region and had come from a rural background, while theupper classes had been derived primarily of those attracted to the areabecause of its economic potential. Mobility was of a horizontal nature, thecoming together in one area of various representatives of pre-existing stratafrom other areas(Gaventa,1980:57). The workers were therefore destined to poverty and inequality, but alsohad to endure such things as poor and even dangerous working conditions with fewhealth benefits and little compensation. And one cannot forget the ongoingdemise of their valley as entire mountain sides were stripped away and the airand water were blackened with millions of tiny coal particles. Why then, in this state of economic, social and even environmentaldepravation did the people not cry out with enough strength to be heard? Whilenearby mining communities experiencing similar conditions responded withmilitant, collective organizations, Middlesborough expressed grievances butnever took the form of organized action or went as far as creating aconsciousness of the situation. The first, second and third dimensions of powerwould give different reasons for this in answering how the Association was ableto maintain the new order they had created and the quiescence of a peopleamongst their condition of poverty and inequality. The pluralist approach would recommend using the democratic politicalprocess of the electoral system in determining the legitimacy of those in powerand of their policies and practices. If the leaders who have been elected bythe people and for the people do not voice concerns about the existing system orthe desire for change, it must be assumed that there were no concerns butinstead an overall approval of the status quo. The people of Middlesborough hada choice between local and Company candidates and with few exceptionscontinued to place their support in the latter. Even within their own unionswhere leadership had become increasingly dictatorial and Company biased, theworkers remained loyal to the existing leaders and opposed the reform movement. By considering only the face value of voting practices, one would haveto agree that the Appalachian miners appear to be in accordance with themanagement of the existing system and their place within it. The seconddimension of power would disagree, however, and would explain the maintenance ofthe system and the compliance of the people as a result of the Companys controlover the political apparatus. The longstanding political science maxim that low socio-economic status,poor education and lack of information, translate into low politicalparticipation would be admissible in the second dimensional view. The elitemade up a closely-knit group of political leaders in Appalachia who madedecisions to advance their causes more than those of the Mountaineers. Therewas little regard for what law there was and money ruled theday(Gaventa,1980:59). This could help explain why Acts were passed to protectthe rights of the Company while demands for miners rights rarely even made it tothe courthouse. This supports the view that non-participation was not theresult of apathy but of a caste system, and that non-issues did not mean lack ofgrievances but lack of opportunity to voice them. This does not, however, support the documented cases where workersthemselves did participate, although minimally, and wilfully voted forcandidates who were backers of the Company. This discrepancy can, nevertheless,be explained with Bachrach and Baratzs use of the term power in its sense asthe securing of compliance through the threat of sanctions(Lukes,1974:17). Fear is thus presented as reason enough for the mountaineers to express supportin the form of a vote, even though it is not an accurate portrayal of theirposition. Traditional political dominance in the Clearfork Valley belonged to agroup of local landowners called The Family who maintained their powerposition by serving as mediators between the Company and community gainingfurther power as brokers of favours concerning jobs or hometenure(Gaventa,1980:143). The Family was associated with Company housing,welfare and employment, and in order to receive any benefits, one had to be intheir good graces. Even now, people say those who live in company housing orwork in mines on company land are expected to vote in the Familysfavour(Gaventa,1982:143). As brokers of benefits, they were also capable of taking them away andimposing sanctions. Many, for example, would not spend their food stampsanywhere but the Company store where prices were higher, with the fear that theywould lose their welfare or even be evicted as a consequence. The people weretherefore quite aware that by accommodating the Company leaders with theirsupport, they stood a chance at being granted certain benefits. Conversely, ifone were to advance the cause of the reform movement and upset the system, lifecould be made very difficult for them. While the benefits of the status quoare high for the powerful, the costs of challenge are potentially higher for thepowerless (Gaventa, 1980: 145). Lukes second dimension of power explains how the Association was able tomaintain its dominance and the quiescence of the people in terms of creating apolitical apparatus to organize certain issues and participants in, and othersout, as well as impose recognizable sanctions. Further analyses, however, wouldrequire a look at the less obvious controls which stemmed from the shaping andinstilling of an ideological apparatus in support of the Company among theordinary citizens. This would describe Lukes third dimension where power is executed in amore subtle way. It is one which shapes the outcome of choice while allowingthe chooser to believe that, in fact, a choice has been made(Gaventa,1980:63). The Mountaineers non-challenge then, although appearing to be a freely chosenstate of quiescence was actually more of an imposed choice. By both deliberateand unintentional means, the consciousness of the people was slanted to adoptthe newly created Industrial ideology. Gaventa identifies four observable waysthat the Association was able to maintain their hegemony. Conditioning the peoples wants involved first a perversion ofinformation which exaggerated benefits of the industrial order and downplayedits oppressive effects upon them. The mountain valley had drawn in millions ofdollars, attracted all kinds of investors, and created hundreds of jobs. Inaddition to this it also became a vacation ground for thewealthy(Gaventa,1980:63) where luxurious hotels were built and a new leisureclass developed. This lifestyle contrasted drastically with that of the labourers livingin dilapidated shacks, yet a working class consciousness failed to develop. This is because an equal opportunity ethic was emphasized, stressing the beliefthat by hard work these benefits were attainable by all. Social stratificationwas therefore accepted by most workers and instead of participating equally,they chose to splurge what little money they had on alcohol which was the onlyway they knew to replicate the pattern (of enjoyment of luxuries) in a lesserstyle(Gaventa,1980:65). The appeal of the new industrial orderand its economic benefits was enhanced by the debasement of the mountaineerstraditional way of life and culture. The two were in direct contrast so theglorification of the first meant the degradation of the other. The old culturewas criticized as a dirty, primitive and meagre way of life while the new orderwas proclaimed for its virtues of civilization and progress. Miners weretherefore socialized to strive for membership under the new order and to beashamed of the old. Imposing values took on a third form in the process of changing names oftowns, schools and other cultural establishments. Names that had been familiarto the old system were changed to those derived from the new. Only Companyworkplaces and mines kept their local names. In this way, ties to the past weresevered and a clear path for a new society was created. Symbols play animportant part in the way people interpret their society. By manipulatinglinguistic symbols the Association was shaping the societal consciousness. Bythe imposition of one identity over another in the cultural arena, and byallowing names to lend the appearance of local possession in the workplace arena(where there was none at all) the development of a counter-hegemony was madeless likely(Gaventa,1980:67). The creation of a set of controls in the form of political andideological constructs resulted in a shaping and influencing away from (themountaineers) stock to participation in the ways and values of the neworder(Gaventa,1980:68). Conformity to the extent where contradictions ofconscience go unnoticed because workers are no longer certain of theirorientation occurred repeatedly and was the main reason challenge was rare. It must be noted, however, that the workers of Middlesborough were notcompletely inact

The Discipline of Organizational Psychology Tools and Techniques

Introduction The discipline of psychology is largely concerned with interpretation and analysis of human behavior. On the same note, organizational psychology also seeks to offer in-depth understanding of how organizations are affected by the available human resource. Nonetheless, this branch of psychology mainly relates human behavior within organization context. The initiative behind this analysis is to develop tools and techniques that are capable of eliciting the best behavior among employees. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Discipline of Organizational Psychology: Tools and Techniques specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Additionally, it is also worth to note that when employees exhibit desired organizational behavior, the success of impacted organizations is quite often guaranteed. It is also against this backdrop that organizational psychology has become a necessity especially during this era of globaliza tion. The latter has elevated competition among organizations. Consequently, they are expected to improve their functionality in order to survive this cut-throat competition. What is Organizational Psychology? According to Jex and Britt (2008), organizational psychology is a branch of psychology that employs scientific techniques to study individual and group behavior within organizational set up. During this study, technical psychological principles are integrated with scientific research methods in order to analyze various factors that affect human behavior in organizations. Moreover, this study seeks to expose elements that affect individual and group behavior negatively and consequently how this negativity impacts on productivity (Kevin, 2005). Similarly, organizational psychology aims at eliminating negative elements in human behavior in order to improve group performance, which is expected to translate to optimization in organizational output. In practice, organizational psyc hology also explores whether groups perform better under formal or informal workplace environments (Kevin, 2005). The latter author presumes the fact that some of the principles of organizational psychology is what has compelled most technological organizations to adopt informal working environments as part of improving workforce performance. This may be attributed to the fact that formal and informal organizations do embrace various procedures and bureaucracies while dealing with their workforce and subsequently, these elements might impact on employees’ behavior either positively or negatively (Jex Britt, 2008). Therefore, organizational psychology seeks to identify bottlenecks that tend to attract negative workforce behavior and consequently inject changes to revert negative performance. Evolution of the Field of Organizational Psychology The historical evolution of organizational psychology can be attributed to various personalities. However, the mammoth contribution of Frederick Winslow Taylor at the beginning of 19th century had the most impact in development of its tenets (Jex Britt, 2008). Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Talyor came up with the idea of technical administration whereby he proposed participatory decision making between managers ands employees (Jex Britt, 2008). At the initial stages, most organizational psychologists held the belief that economic incentives contributed very little towards employees’ performance since no amount of monetary payout can compensate the kind of input employees commit at workplace. Furthermore, philosophical views by Max Weber were of great importance to the progression of organizational psychology (Jex Britt, 2008). Weber perceived governance as bureaucratic and proposed that if workers knew what was expected of them, they would highly likely perform well than when their duties were dictated by bureaucratic managers (Jex Britt, 2008). On the same note, Weber introduced the element of scientific research to organizational psychology when he studied several organization features such as guidance and authority. However, although numerous publications on the effect of employee motivation on organization performance came to be in the 1950s, it was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s when organizational psychology came to be established as a researchable field (Jex Britt, 2008). Following this discovery, subsequent researches exposed a very interesting psychological aspect on the relationship between human behavior and job attitudes/ performance (Jex Britt, 2008). Consequently, researches also noted another important aspect that employees’ behavior within an organization are defined by both group and organization composition (Jex Britt, 2008). These aspects have interested organizational psychology researchers up to date as they seek new discoveries aimed a t modifying human behavior towards organizations success. Compare and Contrast Organizational Psychology with at Least Two Related Disciplines Organizational Behavior Organization psychology is closely related to the discipline of organizational behavior. The two fields exhibit some similarities if the variable under investigation has to do with employees’ behavior (Jex Britt, 2008). Kevin (2005) underscores that the main concern in organizational behavior is to study relationship between human behavior and their organization. Similarly, organization psychology seeks to expose the underlying elements of human behavior that impacts an organization either positively or negatively. The above notion implies that whenever these two disciplines carry out studies aimed at understanding how various elements of human behavior interact with organizational performance, then any disparity between the two is almost non-existent ((Jex Britt, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Discipline of Organizational Psychology: Tools and Techniques specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the main disparity between them is evident in their definitions since organization behavior underpins close relationship to organization itself and not entirely on human behavior. Additionally, whereas organizational psychology restricts itself to psychology in order to establish how organizational procedures and adjustments modifies human behavior, organization behavior extends beyond the borders of psychology and seeks answers from sociology, economics as well as anthropology in an attempt to understand how these factors affect organizational performance (Jex Britt, 2008). Socialization Secondly, organizational psychology can be likened to some elements of organizational socialization. The main concern of organization socialization is to study the orientation and initiation processes that a new employee goes through before they can be fully assimilated into an organizations’ culture (Kevin, 2005). Similarly, organization psychology seeks to understand how socialization process impacts on an employee’s behavior and subsequently whether that behavior elicits negative or positive organization outcome (Kevin, 2005). Whenever an employee joins a new organization he/she ought to be orientated to understand the history, language, politics, goals and values as well as people within that organization. The above elements form the basis for organization socialization research since researchers seek to understand how newcomers override the above processes before they can become fully fledged members (Kevin, 2005). Contrastingly, the most obvious disparity between these two disciplines is that whereas organizational socialization seeks to establish employee socialization process, organization psychology extends its analysis to establish how each process impact on human behavior in o rder to come up with the most effective process that has the least negative impact on organizational performance (Kevin, 2005). The Role of Research and Statistics in the Field of Organizational Psychology Generally, the discipline of psychology is informed via numerous research and statistical data. Apparently, without research, psychological issues would indefinitely remain as speculations because there would be no possibility of proving or disproving these formulated propositions. Research and statistics, therefore, come in handy due the fact that research enables evidence gathering whereas statistics assist in the interpretation of this evidence (Jex Britt, 2008). Similarly, organizational psychology would be incapacitated without research and statistics to advance its tenets (Jex Britt, 2008). Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fact that this subdivision is more scientifically oriented implies that research and statistical interpretation of results is mandatory. Moreover, researchers in this discipline should opt for the most reliable scientific research methods to gather information in order to determine the most appropriate organizational intervention measures (Kevin, 2005). Jex and Britt (2008) underscore that the main goal behind organizational psychology research is to identity the various elements that hinder positive organizational performance. By using statistics, organizational psychologist is able to compare various organizational trends and issues and in the process understand the most common trend across organizations (Kevin, 2005). For instance, an organizational researcher might decide to carry out an insightful study into organizations that are deemed to be successful (Jex Britt, 2008). The information gathered therein might then be used to design and implement organization policies f or an organization whose performance is wanting. Finally, research and statistics are significant since in case of organizational failures, current researchers are able to utilize statistics from prior researches to identify gaps that lead to this failure (Jex Britt, 2008) .Correspondingly, statistical results are more authentic than assumptions. For instance, researchers can utilize various surveying techniques to measure employees’ competence and motivation factors instead of making an assumption that are likely to be biased (Kevin, 2005). Conclusion In a nutshell, although organizational psychology is the least popular in the wider field of psychology, it is quite significant in when operating organizations. Empirical research studies clearly indicate that human asset can either break or make an organization. Therefore, organizational psychology is more than a necessity since by understanding how organizations elements impact on employees’ behavior; managers can mo dify management procedures and bureaucracies to promote performance. Indeed, human resources managers should work hand in hand with organizational psychologists in order to elicit the most productive behavior among employees. References Jex, S. M. Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Kevin, M. (2005).Organizational Psychology and Development: A Reader for Students and Practitioners. Personnel Review, 34(4), 504 – 510. This essay on The Discipline of Organizational Psychology: Tools and Techniques was written and submitted by user Isabela Blackwell to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Comparing and Contrating Achilles with Samson essays

Comparing and Contrating Achilles with Samson essays Comparing and Contrasting Achilles with Samson This paper shows that Achilles and Samson have similar weaknesses and strengths. However this is only my retelling of Samson, and Achilles, although one is a fictional character and the other is a biblical figure they both they both have similarities and differences that I thought were important to point out in this paper. Achilles was the son of a god and a mortal; he was invincible ever since his mother dipped into the River Styx by his heel. This made him indestructible, but his weakness was in his heel which he was still mortal there. (Achilles 5) Samson was a gift from God, an Angel one day appeared to his mother, and promised her a son and said the boy would be a Nazarite. No razor was to touch the boys head and it was through his supernatural strength with which his hair endowed him. This means that he could never cut his hair if he cut his hair he would be mortal, if he grows his hair long he would e invincible. (Parker 16) Achilles was educated by a Centaur, which is a human down to the waste, and the lower torso of a horse. The Centaur taught who taught Achilles was known for his great goodness and wisdom, his name was Chiron. (Bloom 24) Samson was educated by his parents through the influence of God. His parents prayed that they would be able to bear a son. On the day when the Angel came and gave them Samson his parents felt truly blessed. And the Angle told his parents that they would have to raise Samson to have total dedication to God, which meant to follow all of the Nazarite vows which meant that he could never cut his hair, never eat raisons or grapes, not to drink wine, and never to touch a dead body. Following these vows made Samson a better person. (Parker 23) Achilles loyalty doesnt exactly have to do with his devotion to the king or the Trojan army, although he was loyal, and once was loyal to the king, his loyalty show the most to his friend ...

Presidents Who Never Won a Presidential Election

Presidents Who Never Won a Presidential Election There are only five presidents in American history who never won a presidential election. The most recent was Republican Gerald Ford, the 38th president of the United States. Ford served from 1974 to 1977 and then left office in electoral defeat. Where some others assumed the presidency under tumultuous or tragic circumstances and then went on to win a second term, Ford is among a handful who failed to convince voters to return him to power after he ascended to the White House because his predecessor resigned. The other presidents who never won presidential elections were John Tyler,  Millard Fillmore,  Andrew Johnson, and  Chester A. Arthur. Ford is also among fewer than a dozen one-term presidents  who ran for second terms but were denied by voters. So How Did Ford Become President? Ford was serving as vice president in 1974 amid scandal in President Richard M. Nixons administration. He ascended to the presidency when Nixon resigned before he was to face prosecution over the 1972 break-in at the Democratic Partys headquarters in what became known as the  Watergate scandal. Nixon was facing certain impeachment at the time.   As Ford said in taking the Oath of Office:  I assume the Presidency under extraordinary circumstances. This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts. Did Ford Run for Re-Election? Yes. He won the Republican presidential nomination in 1976 but lost in the general election to Democrat Jimmy Carter, who went on to serve one term. Fords political fortunes sank amid a depressed economy, inflation, and energy shortages at home.   Ford and Carter had engaged in what is believed to be among the most important political debates in political history. The debate, many historians believe,  proved disastrous to Fords bid for a second term in the White House. Ford famously claimed, erroneously, the following: There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford administration. Fords statement was met with incredulity from moderator Max Frankel of  The New York Times  and served to tarnish his campaign. What About the Others Who Didnt Win Election? John Tyler became president when President William Henry Harrison died in office in 1841. Tyler could not muster enough support to sustain a legitimate presidential campaign.  Millard Fillmore became president when Zachary Taylor died in 1850. Fillmore sought his partys nomination for a second term but was denied.Andrew Johnson became president when Abraham Lincoln was assassinated in 1865. Johnson did not run for office after being impeached by Congress.  Chester A. Arthur became president after James Garfield was assassinated in 1881. Arthur did not run for re-election.

Army Representative Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Army Representative - Personal Statement Example It aims at providing more aspects in the life of a soldier. Boss supports the overall quality of life and this is in regard to a single soldier. It works upon identifying the well- being issues in the life of a soldier and aims at improving the same. In addition to this BOSS provides an ideal platform for single soldiers to do community service and help as many people as possible. The BOSS team consists of three major organs namely, the senior military adviser, MWR advisor and the BOSS soldiers. Let me just briefly give an account of each. The senior military advisor has many important roles of which being a mentor to the BOSS soldiers is one of the most important, another important role of the senior military advisor is to approve and support the BOSS committee. The third most important role of the senior military advisor is to educate and inform NCO license channel (Liaison). The MWR Advisor is responsible for assisting the budget, the person is also supposed to do marketing of BOSS, another important role is to train BOSS committee members and the role also demands guidance on volunteer program. Moving on to the third most important organ of BOSS, the soldiers, there is a president, vice president, Secretary, Treasurer and brigade, all the posts come with various responsibilities and only the best soldiers are chosen for the same. This demonstrates my unde rstanding of BOSS and the expectations of the organization out of the soldiers. My Vision and Experience I consider myself a highly equipped professional and I have an experience of 9 years in performing a variety of administrative and staff support duties for different departments, which require a range of knowledge and skills of organizational procedures and policies; resolving administrative problems and inquiries. Interact well with individuals from diverse cultures and all professional levels. I will make sure that when I put the skills I am equipped with to work I achieve the highest quality standards of work. Let me just throw some light upon my core strengths, I am very comfortable working in Administrative Support, creative work attitude, Business correspondence and these are just a handful areas where I am very comfortable in working. I am aware of the fact that BOSS is also looking at experience and let me just give a brief account of my experience. I have served in the US Army for 9 years and during this period I gained a lot of experience. I worked as a record custodian and I was given many important responsibilities like training sailors and this was because the department where I worked was in joint- operation with the US navy. The post which I occupied demanded the management of dual role responsibility and I was selected to provide daily situation reports of the Battalion staff and trainees. I was also responsible for all the paper work and I was given the responsibility of proper filing of finances and personnel records I have also handled the post of Assistant training NCO; I was required to carry out many responsibilities. Some of them included Developing processing procedures and implementing procedures to staff during student in processing, assisted with the daily operations of the Battalion S-3 section, Assisting with maintaining individual

JC Penney - When did the Giant Retailer make the change and why Term Paper

JC Penney - When did the Giant Retailer make the change and why... Myron Ullman vs Ron Johnson leadership styles - Term Paper Example The company’s stated goal is to build deeper, more enduring relationships with its customers, increase associate engagement and retention and deliver industry-leading financial performance for its shareholders. As a business strategy, J.C. Penney intends to become a growth leader in retail industry.   The retailer strives to achieve excellence in style authority, customer interactions, digital experiences, and operational effectiveness (JCPenney, 2013). James Cash Penney  opened the first J.C. Penny store in Kemmerer, Wyoming in 1902. In 1907, he purchased â€Å"The Golden Rule Stores† chain of stores where he was a partner. In 1913, the company changed its name to the J. C. Penney Company and adopted the business principles that would guide the company to conduct its business. By 1922, the J.C. Penney operated 371 stores located in 27 different states. J.C. Penney went public in 1929. In 1951 the company introduced credit sales and in 1953 it began catalogue sales. The company advertised on the national television for the first time in the 1970s. In the 1990s, the J.C. Penney stores became ‘anchors’ for the malls that came up across the United States. In 1994, J.C. Penny launched its e-commerce website  www.jcp.com. In 2005, the online sales exceed $1 billion. A year later, the retailer unveiled Sephora, the store-within-a-store concept. The company launched its customer loyalty program, jcp Rewards, and its Customer FIRST initiative in 2008 (JCPenney, 2013). The retail industry in United States clocks more than $3.8 trillion in  retail  sales on an annual basis (Business Wire, 2013). The ongoing recessionary conditions have thwarted the industry from registering rapid sales growth in recent times. The retail industry in the United States is undergoing a change. There has been a transformation in consumer buying habits especially in the wake of the recession of 2008. Numerous retailers have reported lukewarm

History of Nursing Homes Essay Example for Free

History of Nursing Homes Essay Today, there are approximately 16,100 nursing homes in the U. S. with approximately 1. 5 million residents (www. cdc. gov). However historically, the sick, disabled, and aged were cared for at home by family members. Changes in technology and social changes have created a shift in how we care for our elderly and disabled, and there is evolution in geriatric care that continues today (Morris, 1995). Nurses have had a huge role in revolutionizing the care for our elderly and for creating what is the modern nursing home. Caring for the old age, or geriatric nursing, is often not viewed as being as prestigious as other specialties in nursing. Despite the growing elderly population and the fact that 46% of all Registered Nurses will be providing direct care to the elderly, the majority of nursing students still do not receive any specialized content in geriatric nursing (Ebersole Touhy, 2006). Later on, we will discuss the development of geriatric nursing as a specialty and as it relates to the history of long-term care. In the sixteenth century, we began to see institutions developed to care for a variety of people in need. This did not just include the elderly or disabled, but any dependent poor, sick, orphaned children, widows, insane, and even minor criminals. These institutions could be considered a predecessor to the nursing homes that eventually followed (Morris, 1995). Poor laws in Europe gave rise to these institutions referred to as workhouses, almshouses, or poorhouses. They provided very minimal nursing care, and the care was often provided by â€Å"pauper nurses† who were not trained and usually inmates themselves, often alcoholics. Agnes Jones, a Nightingale trained nurse visited a Liverpool Infirmary in 1864 and reported â€Å"deplorable† conditions. She was forced to dismiss 35 pauper nurses for drunkenness and stated that bed clothes had not been washed for months (Ebersole Touhy, 2006). These poorhouses were common in the United States as well and often had the same deplorable conditions. Carolyn Bartlett Crane, the Chairman of Charity Organization Department of Women’s Civic Improvement League of Kalamazoo, MI attempted to address these problems first with the Michigan State Nurses’ Association in 1906 and again with the Nurses’ Associated Alumni of the United States in 1907 with pleas for nursing care in these almshouses. In her 1907 paper, â€Å"Almshouse Nursing: the Human Need; the Professional Opportunity†, she described the county almshouse as a â€Å"hospital with the hospital part left out. † She went on to talk about how the specialization of institutions for certain groups, such as asylums and orphanages, left the elderly and infirm to be the majority of those left with no other options besides the poorhouses (as cited in Ebersole Touhy, 2006 p. 8). Little progress was made. In 1912, the American Nurses’ Association Board of Directors appointed an Almshouse Committee to oversee housing in these institutions. Progress continued to be slow. From 1910 to 1920 focus was taken away from elder care due to the war (Ebersole Touhy, 2006). An article published in the American Journal of Nursing in 1930 by Munson, R. N. discussed the conditions in the almshouses and lack of quality nursing care. She states, â€Å"Modern nursing in England and in this country was started with the purpose of ‘cleaning up’ just such conditions in hospitals as are still found in almshouses. † She proposed that these small almshouses be consolidated into larger facilities that are better managed (1930). Morris describes the factors that have led to the need for the care that nursing homes provide today. They describe an area of healthcare when a person is not acutely ill and in need of hospital care, but is perhaps chronically ill and cannot return independently to live in his or her home. This â€Å"middle† is ever changing and is affected by two factors: technology and social change. As we discussed earlier, care for the elderly and infirm had largely been done by individual families. Poorhouses and almshouses arose to meet the need for anyone who did not have family to care for them or means to care for themselves. The need increased in the U. S. as the immigrant population rose and there was a shift from extended to nuclear families. A child born in 1900 had a life expectancy of only forty-seven years old. As medical technology, for example, infection control, rapidly developed, the population of elderly people increased. With the rise in aged population, there was an increase in chronic disabilities associated with age (1995). In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, living standards increased. The poorhouses began to become a thing of the past as there was a movement to specialize care for certain groups. For example: asylums for mentally ill, TB sanatoriums, veterans’ hospitals, and orphanages. There was homecare provided by public health nurses, but many refused to care for the chronically ill (Morris, 1995). As mentioned earlier, the elderly and infirm were among the last left in the poorhouses. Thanks to the efforts of many, including many nurses, there was a push to provide better care and bring trained nurses into these almshouses. By 1940, increased expectations for care and the Social Security Act led to the rise of the modern nursing home. The Social Security Act provided a means for elderly who could no longer work and widows to have financial means to pay for care. Entrepreneurs quickly took advantage and homes for the elderly were often as much for profit as for care. By the 1960s, scandals and patient neglect led to increased regulation and public control over expansion (Morris, 1995). Medicare and Medicaid provided more money for care of the elderly and also further increased government control. Rapid increases in technology and new treatments led to a further rise in the aged and vulnerable population and increasing costs. Nursing homes became linked to local hospitals and doctor referrals. Some homes specialized their services to include services for cognitive impairment or active rehabilitation. Government reimbursement and regulation became more complicated. Nursing homes became less â€Å"homes† and more medical facilities. They operated with a limited nursing staff and very little physician presence. It continues today that nursing homes face contradictory pressures to accept sicker and more difficult patients while at the same time maintaining a â€Å"home-like† atmosphere. All this while limiting costs (Morris, 1995). As more specialized care for the elderly developed, it was apparent that the needs of the elderly were not as simple as taking the principles of nursing care and applying them to the aged. Geriatric nursing has only become recognized as a specialty within the past fifty years. However, the origins of gerontological nursing can be traced all the way back to Florence Nightingale who once was a superintendent in an institution we would call a nursing home today. The clinical study of the aged can be traced back much further to Hippocrates. A Viennese physician, Ignatiz Nascher coined the word â€Å"geriatrics† in a 1909 New York Medical Journal article. In 1935, a physician named Marjorie Warren established an elderly concentrated practice with a concentration on environment, rehabilitation and motivational methods (Ebersole Touhy, 2006). Geriatric nursing is a unique specialty in that it was developed by nurses themselves. Other nursing specialties were first developed in medicine and then carried over to nursing. The reason for this difference is that medicine so often concentrates on curing illness and prolonging life. As Ebersole states, â€Å"Old people often have little life left and therefore are unattractive subjects. † Nurses, in contrast, have always sought to prevent illness and alleviate suffering (Ebersole Touhy, 2006). It seems fitting that nursing, and not medicine, would give birth to this specialty and that is something that nurse’s should take pride in. However, as mentioned earlier, geriatric nursing is often considered the least prestigious of nursing concentrations. With the continued rise of the elderly population as the baby-boomer generation ages, nurses should be prepared to care for elderly in some capacity no matter which specialty they choose. It is unfortunate that nursing schools often provide little material on geriatrics as a unique population. Care for the elderly has continued to make slow, but consistent progress even in more recent years. Although we are leaps and bounds from the almshouse, there has still been serious abuse and neglect in nursing homes and cries for change in the way we house and care for our elderly. In addition to more people receiving homecare services that allow them to live at home longer, there are other movements to change the nursing home itself. William Thomas describes an alternative concept that hopes to revolutionize long-term care, the Eden Alternative. He states, â€Å"The modern American nursing home is being crushed between the intrinsic weaknesses of the institution and the rising expectations of a new generation of elders. We are witnesses to its destruction. Like the leper colony, the tuberculosis sanitarium and insane asylum, the nursing home is about to be heaved onto the ash heap of history (Thomas, 2003 p. 42). † In 1992, the Eden Alternative began as a grant project in New York. It has changed over the years, but is based on a set of principles that aim to make facilities more like homes. The focus is on treating the residents as unique individuals first and patients second. Some changes that differ from traditional nursing homes include environmental changes like carpets, plants, and allowing pets and personal items, single rooms, and family style meals. Staff at Eden facilities do not dress in scrubs and whenever possible, a child daycare is on site to increase staff satisfaction as well as bringing more life into the facility. Currently only about 2% of U. S. nursing homes have adopted this new format despite the statistics showing significant reductions in behavioral incidents, decubitus ulcers, bedfast residents, use of restraints, and staff absenteeism. There was also an increase in census (Thomas, 2003). Going a step beyond the Eden Alternative, an even more recent development has been the â€Å"Green House† with a focus on smaller being better. These homes aim to blend seamlessly into a community and house up to eight residents in what is more than a home-like atmosphere, but very much a home. The technology would still be utilized, but as in the original Eden model, it should be woven into daily life without interfering with it. So far, Green Houses have been able to meet the increasing challenges of providing state of the art care and keeping costs down while complying with state and federal regulations (Thomas, 2003). In conclusion, the nursing home and geriatric nursing have developed to meet the needs of a changing society with ever increasing medical advances and a larger than ever population of elderly. Nurses have been a huge part in the development of what has become the modern nursing home. As the geriatric nursing specialty has grown, there has also been greater understanding of the unique needs of our aging population. It is clear that despite the advances made, there is still much dissatisfaction in how we care for our elderly population and a lot of room for improvement. New alternatives are being developed and it will be fascinating to be in the field of nursing to witness the changes that are yet to come.

The Sarbane-Oxley Act (SOA) Essay -- Corporate Governance

INTRODUCTION "The Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act" was signed into law by President Bush on July 30, 2002. The law is now known as The Sarbane-Oxley Act (SOA). The SOA has eleven titles within the act and numerous sections, pertaining to ethics, accounting, financial reporting, responsibilities of officers, whistleblower protection, and increased criminal penalties built upon prior securities laws. SOA is the most comprehensive securities legislation written since the 1940s. In the early part of the twentieth century companies did not have the sophistication and abilities of the modern company in regard to information technology, number of accountants, advisors and analysts. This legislation is a big step toward keeping U.S. law up to date with modern business practices. The Sarbane-Oxley Act was necessary to protect the U.S. economy and restore investor confidence after the many years of dishonest business practices by ENRON, WORLDCOM, TYCO and other companies. The practitioners of shady accounting and greed brought about a collapse in stock prices, shook investor confidence and hurt the credibility of all publicly traded companies. A mass "bail-out" by large stockholders ensued; however the average small investor held on, hoping that the stock would stabilize and believing the reassurances of companies, that claimed they were financially well-off when they were actually worth less than what they owed. In the end, investors and lower-rung employees of these companies were devastated financially. The underhandedness and greed of these corporate officers had the potential to hurl the U.S. economy out of control. The small investors, who are registered voters demanded action. This paper will review the sections of The Sarbane-Oxley Act, highlight their broad implications and discuss compliance. Compliance will cost all publicly traded companies a great deal of money. ?Deloitte's Point of View? will be used to illustrate that compliance, when embraced properly and approached positively can bring rewards for companies in the long term. SECTIONS The sections that follow are a simplification of the Sarbane-Oxley legislation. There are many niches that will require attorneys, accountants and advisors. Keep in mind all prior SEC (securities exchange commission) legislation such as (The Securities Act of 1933, Securiti... ...s Point of View, Sarbanes-Oxley Compliance. (Online). 8 Pages. Retrieved January 16, 2003 from: http://www.deloitte.com/dtt/section_node/0%2C2332%2Csid%25253D5601%2C00.html PriceWaterhouseCoopers. (2003). Key Elements of Antifraud Programs and Controls, A White Paper. 29 Pages (Online). Retrieved January 16, 2003 from: http://www.pwcglobal.com/Extweb/NewCoAtWork.nsf/docid/D0D7F79003C6D64485256CF30074D66C Securities and Exchange Commission. (2002). Proposed Rule: Certification of Disclosure in Companies? Quarterly and Annual Reports. 6 Pages (Online). Retrieved January 17, 2003 from: http://www.sec.gov/rules/proposed/34-46300.htm Securities and Exchange Commission. (2003). The Laws That Govern the Securities Industry. 5 Pages, (Online). Retrieved January 17, 2003 from: http://www.sec.gov/about/laws.shtml#secact1933 Securities and Exchange Commission. (2003). Summary of SEC Actions. 3 Pages, (Online). Retrieved January 17, 2003 from: www.sec.gov/news/press/2003-89a.htm Worthen B. (2003, December 1). A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Compliance. CIO Magazine, Retrieved January 15, 2003 from: http://www.cio.com/archive/120103/oxley.html

Ethnic Minority Adolescents Essay

Define and give two examples of diversity as a dimension of ethnic minority adolescents One important dimension of ethnic minority adolescents is their diversity. It is highly evident that ethnic minorities are different in terms of their historical background, economic experiences, and social qualities (Santrock, 2007). They may also have different traditions, beliefs, and practices, among others. However, even though these ethnic minority groups have legitimate differences from other people, they should not be considered as inferior beings entirely as they are still human being just like the people who often discriminate against them. In other words, instead of criticizing or belittling the differences, one should acknowledge, accept, and most of all, respect their differences as this allows one to get along with them in a society that is filled and multiply and vast cultures and ethnicities. Acknowledging and respecting their difference would also mean putting oneself in their shoes and thinking about how would they feel. One example of diversity as a dimension of ethnic minority is their different customs and traditions. For example, a Mexican-American adolescent’s way of praying should not be ridiculed but instead be respected most especially if does not affect or impact the normal lives of other people. This also includes his or her food preferences and clothes, among many others. Another example is when an Asian-American boy is expected to be fluent in Chinese even though he was born and raised in the United States. This is a case of stereotyping as the boy, even though he has Chinese roots, has assimilated into the American culture and is not familiar with the language of his heritage. In short, people should keep an open mind when dealing with different ethnic minority adolescents. They should always apply a multicultural perspective and embrace the fact that one of the distinguishing aspects of these groups is their diversity. By doing so, these ethnic minority adolescents would grow up having an easier time associating with people from other ethnic groups. References Santrock, J. W. (2007). Adolescence. United States: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages.

Study Guide, Principles of Marketing

Module Study Guide Taylor’s University Undergraduate Business Programs BUS2304 Principles of Marketing August Semester 2012 BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 1 TUTORIAL 1: INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? ? Module Information Booklet will be discussed and explained in detail Form Groups Tutorial exercises – Introducing the basics concepts of marketing LEARNING OUTCOMES ? ? ? Understand key marketing concepts and marketing management philosophies used in marketing planning Understand the importance of marketing in business practices Understand the concept of the marketing experienceDiscussion questions 1. What is the most amazing marketing experience you have ever had? ? Was it an individual employee or a business processes? ? Describe a situation in which you became a â€Å"lost customer†. Was it because of poor product quality, poor service quality or both? Using the concept of â€Å"consumer need† to identify markets: What is National E xpress’s ‘product’? What market (need) does it serve? Who are their direct competitors? What are the potential substitutes? BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 2 What is their ‘product’?What markets do they serve? Who are their competitors? What new markets might they exploit? Journal Article: Theodore Levitt’s Marketing Myopia (1960) Students to understand the concept of ‘marketing myopia’ and the dangers that defining their products and markets too narrowly might pose for an organization. What is Cellular One selling? What marketing management philosophy do you see in evidence? BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 3 Is there anything that can't — or shouldn't — be marketed? BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETINGPage 4 TUTORIAL 2: MARKETING ENVIRONMENT CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? Group activity Discussion questions LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ? Explain how changes in the marketing environment can effect marketing activities Identify the different micro environmental factors Identify the different macro environmental factors TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Discussion questions 1. What are some of the cultural differences that you have observed when you lived or travelled abroad? ? What were some of the similarities/ differences that you observed? To what extent should cultural differences be considered in international marketing? 2. Imagine a company that is considering changing its product line to become more environmentally friendly, which might increase costs. Use the six major forces of the macroenvironment and list pros and cons that the company should take into consideration before making its final decision. Group Activity In a group – Bring broadsheet newspapers. Mark/highlight articles relating to Macro and Micro environment. Explain. Refer to examples shown by your tutor.BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 5 TUTORIAL 3: CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 1 CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? Discussion Questions Group activity LEARNING O UTCOME: ? ? ? ? Identify the different characteristics that influence consumer behavior Differentiate the different types of buying behavior Identify the different stages in a buyer decisions process and apply different marketing strategies to stimulate interest / purchase in these stages Identify the different macro environmental factors TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Discussion questions Could KFC use this ad outside Asia?BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 6 Group Activity Activity 1 Examine Maslow’s 5 stage Hierarchy of needs model. Go through the advertisements in your national and local newspapers, magazines etc to see if you can identify and collect at least one advertisement which focuses on each of those stages, from physiological (biogenic) through to self actualization (psychogenic). Also consider TV channels and websites. Print out examples if you can. Activity 2 Consider two purchases you have made recently e. g. soft drink (limited problem solving) and a car, holiday, com puter or a degree course. (extended or involved problem solving). Examine in each case how the decision making process model outlined above may have differed. Here you may consider giving particular attention to the evoked set and post cognitive dissonance. Does your experience differ from the accepted theory? If so why do you think this may be? BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 7 TUTORIAL 4: CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 2 CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? Discussion Questions Group activity LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ? Identify the different characteristics that influence consumer behavior Differentiate the different types of buying behavior Identify the different stages in a buyer decisions process and apply different marketing strategies to stimulate interest / purchase in these stages Identify the different macro environmental factors TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Discussion questions 1. Would the marketers at Mercedes be pleased if the coach of a sporting team or the head teacher at a primary school purchased a n A-Class? BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 8Group Activity Social grade classification The UK Office of National Statistics (ONS) produced a new socio-economic classification in 2001. The reason was to provide a more comprehensive and detailed classification to take newer employment patterns into account. Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Description Higher Professional and Managerial workers Lower Managerial and Professional workers Intermediate occupations Lower Supervisory and technical Semi Routine Occupations Routine Occupations Long term unemployed A B Grade C1 and C2 C1 and C2 D D E Small Employers and non professional self-employed C1 and C2Many commercial market research programmes have found significant differences in buying behaviour between the various social grades. The Market Research Society argues that this system can be justified as it is easy to research and that the social grade appears to be a reasonably good discriminator in many product markets profiled in MINTEL repo rts. Social grade reflects lifestyle patterns and is used widely by advertisers while profiling consumers. Questions a. To what extent do you think that social class is a helpful concept in improving the marketer’s understanding of consumer behaviour. . What do you the major criticisms to the social grade system are? c. Consider the following occupations and allocate a social grade to them: i. Student ii. Chartered Accountant iii. Bricklayer with City Council iv. A backpacker v. A retired pensioner on state benefits vi. A High Court Judge BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 9 vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. A self employed plumber. Teacher aged 23 (qualified) Teacher aged 32 (qualified) Retired employee, company pension Shop Assistant Unemployed farm workerBUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 10 TUTORIAL 5: SEGMENTATION, TARGETING AND POSITIONING CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? ? Watch the video â€Å"LoReal Percier† Discuss questions Mini case discussion LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? Ident ify the different bases for segmenting consumers and business markets. Evaluate market segments, select market segments and choose market coverage strategies TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Discussion questions 1. What is the basic rationale for segmentation? 2. What are some of the common variables used to segment a market? 3.What are the requirements for effective segmentation? 4. What is the difference between segmentation and targeting? Group Discussion Market segmentation is built around identifying differences in needs between different groups of customers. How could a bank segment its consumer market? BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 11 Video: L’Oreal Watch the L’Oreal Percier video a) Who is the target market for the product? b) What bases for segmentation has L’Oreal used? (Consider the importance of geographic, demographic, behavioral and psychographic)Read Tasty Bite: Coming to America (Textbook page 133) Discuss the segmentation, targeting and positioning st eps that Tasty Bite has taken in entering the US market. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 12 TUTORIAL 6: PRODUCT AND SERVICES STRATEGY 1 CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? ? Identifying slogans for brands Group activity Mini case LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ? Identify different product / services and their classifications Recognize the importance of branding, packaging and labeling a product Suggest product line and product mix strategies for product / service TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES . Brand Association & Slogans. Identify the brand name for each of the following slogan/phrase. How many slogans/phrases did you identify? 2. Brand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Slogan Impossible is Nothing The world’s local bank It’s the real thing The world leader in oral care. The most powerful alkaline battery in the world. Take power to the next level. Share moments. Share life. Because I'm worth it. Awaken your senses. Connecting people. The choice of a new generation. There are some things money can’t buy. For everything else, there’s [product name].Don’t leave home without it The ultimate driving machine The happiest place on earth Put a tiger in your tank The power of dreams Page 13 BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING 18 19 20 Melts in your mouth, not in your hands Just do it Give me a break! Read Pepsi Sakes bubble with limited edition soft drinks (Textbook page 334) Read case 11. 2 (Textbook page 334) and answer the discussion questions. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 14 TUTORIAL 7: PRODUCT AND SERVICES STRATEGY 2 CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? Group activity Case Study – New Belgium Brews up strong brand equity LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ?Identify different product / services and their classifications Recognize the importance of branding, packaging and labeling a product Suggest product line and product mix strategies for product / service TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES 1. Group Activity – Who am I? a. Select a product category –mobile phones, computers, cars etc. b. Brainstorm and list all competing brands within that category. c. Each group is allocated a brand and brands must be highly differentiated. d. Each group must humanise their brand: Am I female or male? How old am I? What level am I educated to? What colour is my hair?Do I have hair? What is my nationality? What is my occupation? Do I work? What type of clothes do I wear? Where do I go on holidays? What are my hobbies? Am I married or single? Do I have children? What type of car do I drive? Do I have a car? Do I own a house/flat? Where do I live? e. Each group to present their brand personality back to the class. 2. Read case 13. 1 (Textbook page 390) and answer the discussion questions. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 15 TUTORIAL 8: PRICING STRATEGIES CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? ? Case study Discuss questions Presenting and defending pricing decisionsLEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ? Recognize the importance of importance of considering internal and external factors wh en setting final price for products/services Identify the different pricing strategies Know the format of the examination and have a guide to revising and preparing for the examination. TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES 1. Read the Case study â€Å"Plug & Sons†. 2. In your group discuss your strategy. 3. Each group is to present and defend their strategy and challenge others to draw attention to: ? ? ? The importance of defining the target market and positioning – who’s going to buy this and why?This is a decision that the students will have to make, as no target market has been identified. The tendency of marketers to compete on value rather than price. Marketers usually try and charge as much as possible for products The way theory such as customer price dynamics can be used to structure and analyse and build a coherent argument BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 16 TUTORIAL 9: DISTRIBUTION STRATEGIES CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? ? ? Read the case â€Å"Dell Direct and not so D irect† Discussion Questions Discussing FedEx based on www. fedex. comLEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ? ? Recognize the importance of marketing channels in marketing activities Explain the different levels in a marketing channel Explain the main considerations in a marketing channel Discuss the different ways in managing channel members TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Activity 1 Visit www. fedex. com Many companies lack their own distribution systems. firms in this situation may rely upon the service provided by companies such as FedEx to handle their distribution. 1. What tools does FedEx provide to make shipping process easier? 2.Other than shipping products, what other services does FedEx provide? 3. Is there information on FedEx website that would help a potential FedEx customer to evaluate FedEx regarding some of the selection criteria shown in Table 14. 3 in the textbook? Activity 2 Dell Direct and not so Direct Read case 14. 2 on page 342 and answer discussion questions 1, 2 and 3. BUS2304 PR INCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 17 TUTORIAL 10: PROMOTION STRATEGIES 1 CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? ? Video â€Å"Mercedes Benz† Case study – At Southwesr airlines, â€Å"We Love Your Bags† Discussion Questions LEARNING OUTCOME: ? Recognize the difference between conventional promotional practices and the IMC concept Recognize the growth and importance of the IMC concept TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Video Mercedes Benz. Watch the two videos on Mercedes Benz. 1. What is the objective that Mercedes is trying to achieve? 2. What appeals have they used in their advertising strategy? 3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using such a strategy. At Southwest Airlines, â€Å"We Love Your Bags† Case 16. 2 , Text book page 500. Answer discussion question 1 to 3. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 18 TUTORIAL 11: PROMOTION STRATEGIES 2 CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? Watch video â€Å"Earth Hour† Discussion LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? Recognize the difference between conventional promot ional practices and the IMC concept Recognize the growth and importance of the IMC concept TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES 1. Watch the different videos of Earth Hour. 2. Based on the different videos you have watched, what are the different types of promotion being used for the campaign? 3. Who is one target audience for Earth Hour? Based on the target group you have defined, select one product that caters to this segment that participated in Earth Hour? 4. Do profit and non-profit organizations use the same promotional tools?Give examples. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 19 TUTORIAL 12: SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND MARKETING ETHICS CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? Case â€Å"At Timberland , Doing Well and Doing Good are Laced together† Discuss questions LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? ? To understand the concept and dimensions of social responsibility To define and describe the importance of marketing ethics To understand the role of social responsibility and ethics in improving marketing performance TUT ORIAL ACTIVITIES 1. What is social responsibility? Why is it important? 2. What are some social responsibility issues? Give an example of each. 3.What is the difference between ethics and social responsibility? 4. Read Strategic Case 8 – At Timberland, Doing Well and Doing Good are Laced Together. Answer questions 1 to 4. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 20 TUTORIAL 13: ONLINE FORUM AND DISCUSSION – EXAMINATION FORMAT CLASS ACTIVITIES: ? ? Online forum and discussion E-Learning week LEARNING OUTCOME: ? ? Know the format of the examination and have a guide to revising and preparing for the examination. Discuss different techniques for answering examination questions TUTORIAL ACTIVITIES Students’ participate online in a forum and discussion. BUS2304 PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING Page 21

Presidential Candidates on Education essays

Presidential Candidates on Education essays Education is the backbone of human growth in all fields of lives, by that economy, society, morality or personal development. It is the answer or solution to all the problems encountered by an individual, society or a nation. Through the direct use of knowledge, an educated person can help himself and others around him to overcome obstacles, develop himself and reach his highest potential. Therefore, education has been among the highest priorities of nations all over the world. Education has been among primary goals of all governments that ever ruled America and it is reason of American's success and hegemony in the world. Thus, the candidates of American Presidential elections have come up with scrupulously detailed plans on improving the quality of education for John Kerry is the candidate of the Democratic Party. He plans to increase job opportunities, increase the access and improve the quality of health care facilities and education, strengthening economy, military and relationships with other nations. He has proven himself as of possessing leadership qualities and humanitarian feelings during and after Vietnam War Kerry believes that every school should aim for and have resources to reach high standards of education. He plans to establish a National Education Trust Fund to ensure that schools always have the resources to provide quality education. Rewards would be granted to schools that reach the As teachers are the factor that determine the quality of education that each child receives, a plan to ensure that only competent persons teach and This program would be called ""New Bargain for America's Children and Teachers" under which 500,00 capable teachers will be hired. Teachers will be rewarded with high pays while at same time will be demanded to carry out rigorous testing that train and develop students for future careers. Majority of parents work in America till late in t...

The History of Sex Discrimination Legislation in the US

The History of Sex Discrimination Legislation in the US The United States Constitution did not mention women or limit any of its rights or privileges to males. The word persons was used, which sounds gender neutral. However, common law, inherited from British precedents, informed the interpretation of the law. And many state laws were not gender-neutral. While right after the Constitution was adopted, New Jersey accepted voting rights for women, even those had been lost by a bill in 1807 that rescinded the right of both women and black men to vote in that state. The principle of coverture prevailed at the time the Constitution was written and adopted: a married woman was simply not a person under the law; her legal existence was bound up with that of her husbands. Dower rights, meant to protect a widows income during her lifetime, were already being ignored increasingly, and so women were in the tough position of not having significant rights to own property, while the convention of dower that had protected them under that system was collapsing. Beginning in the 1840s, womens rights advocates began working to establish legal and political equality for women in some of the states. Property rights of women were among the first targets. But these did not affect the federal constitutional rights of women. Not yet. 1868: Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution The first major constitutional change to affect womens rights was the Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment was designed to overturn the Dred Scott decision, which found that black people had no rights which the white man was bound to respect, and to clarify other citizenship rights after the American Civil War had ended. The primary effect was to ensure that freed slaves and other African Americans had full citizenship rights. But the amendment also included the word male in connection with voting, and the womens rights movement split over whether to support the amendment because it established racial equality in voting, or oppose it because it was the first explicit federal denial that women had voting rights. 1873: Bradwell v. Illinois Myra Bradwell claimed the right to practice law as part of the 14th Amendments protections. The Supreme Court found that the right to choose ones profession was not a protected right and that womens paramount destiny and mission was the offices of wife and mother. Women could be legally excluded from the practice of law, the Supreme Court found, using a separate spheres argument. 1875: Minor v. Happerset The suffrage movement decided to use the Fourteenth Amendment, even with that mention of male, to justify women voting. A number of women in 1872 attempted to vote in a federal election; Susan B. Anthony was arrested and convicted for doing so. A Missouri woman, Virginia Minor, also challenged the law. The registrars action forbidding her from voting was the basis for yet another case to reach the Supreme Court (her husband had to file the lawsuit, as coverture laws forbid her as a married woman from filing on her own behalf). In their decision in  Minor v. Happerset, the Court found that while women were indeed citizens, voting was not one of the privileges and immunities of citizenship and thus states could deny women the right to vote. 1894: In re Lockwood Belva Lockwood filed a lawsuit to force Virginia to allow her to practice law. She was already a member of the bar in the District of Columbia. But the Supreme Court found that it was acceptable to read the word citizens in the 14th Amendment to include only male citizens. 1903: Muller v. Oregon Thwarted in legal cases claiming womens full equality as citizens, womens rights and labor rights workers filed the Brandeis Brief in the case of Muller v. Oregon. The claim was that womens special status as wives and mothers, especially as mothers, required that they be given special protection as workers. The Supreme Court had been reluctant to allow legislatures to interfere with contract rights of employers by permitting limits on hours or minimum wage requirements; however, in this case, the Supreme Court looked at evidence of working conditions and permit special protections for women in the workplace. Louis Brandeis, himself later appointed to the Supreme Court, was the lawyer for the case promoting protective legislation for women; the Brandeis brief was prepared primarily by his sister-in-law Josephine Goldmark and by reformer Florence Kelley. 1920: Nineteenth Amendment Women were granted the right to vote by the 19th Amendment, passed by Congress in 1919 and ratified by enough states in 1920 to take effect. 1923: Adkins v. Childrens Hospital In 1923, the Supreme Court decided that federal minimum wage legislation applying to women infringed on the liberty of contract and thus on the Fifth Amendment. Muller v. Oregon was not overturned, however. 1923: Equal Rights Amendment Introduced Alice Paul wrote a proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution to require equal rights for men and women. She named the proposed amendment for suffrage pioneer Lucretia Mott. When she reworded the amendment in the 1940s, it came to be called the Alice Paul amendment. It did not pass the Congress until 1972. 1938: West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish This decision by the Supreme Court, overturning Adkins v. Childrens Hospital, upheld Washington States minimum wage legislation, opening the door again for protective labor legislation applying to women or men. 1948: Goesaert v. Cleary In this case, the Supreme Court found valid a state statute prohibiting most women (other than wives or daughters of male tavern keepers) from serving or selling liquor. 1961: Hoyt v. Florida The Supreme Court heard this case challenging a conviction on the basis that the female defendant faced an all-male jury because jury duty was not mandatory for women. The Supreme Court denied that the state statute exempting women from jury duty was discriminatory, finding that women needed protection from the atmosphere of the courtroom and that it was reasonable to assume that women were needed in the home. 1971: Reed v. Reed In  Reed v. Reed, the U.S. Supreme Court heard a case where state law preferred males to females as administrators of an estate. In this case, unlike many earlier cases, the Court held that the 14th Amendments equal protection clause applied to women equally. 1972: Equal Rights Amendment Passes Congress In 1972, the US Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment, sending it to the states. The Congress appended a requirement that the amendment be ratified within seven years, later extended to 1982, but only 35 of the requisite states ratified it during that period. Some legal scholars challenge the deadline, and by that assessment, the ERA is still alive to be ratified by three more states. 1973: Frontiero v. Richardson In the case of  Frontiero v. Richardson, the Supreme Court found that the military could not have different criteria for male spouses of military members in deciding eligibility for benefits, violating the Fifth Amendments Due Process Clause. The court also signaled that it would be using more scrutiny in the future in looking at sex distinctions in the law- not quite strict scrutiny, which did not get majority support among the justices in the case. 1974: Geduldig v. Aiello Geduldig v. Aiello looked at a states disability insurance system which excluded temporary absences from work due to pregnancy disability and found that normal pregnancies did not have to be covered by the system. 1975: Stanton v. Stanton In this case, the Supreme Court threw out distinctions in the age at which girls and boys were entitled to child support. 1976: Planned Parenthood v. Danforth The Supreme Court found that spousal consent laws (in this case, in the third trimester) were unconstitutional because the pregnant womans rights were more compelling than her husbands. The Court did uphold that regulations requiring the womans full and informed consent were constitutional. 1976: Craig. v. Boren In  Craig v. Boren, the court threw out a law which treated men and women differently in setting a drinking age. The case is also noted for setting out the new standard of judicial review in cases involving sex discrimination, intermediate scrutiny. 1979: Orr v. Orr In Orr v. Orr, the Court held that alimony laws applied equally to women and men and that the means of the partner were to be considered, not merely their sex. 1981: Rostker v. Goldberg In this case, the Court applied equal protection analysis to examine whether male-only registration for the Selective Service violated the due process clause.  By a six to three decision, the Court applied the heightened scrutiny standard of  Craig v. Boren  to find that military readiness and appropriate use of resources justified the sex-based classifications. The court did not challenge the exclusion of women from combat and the role of women in the armed forces in making their decision. 1987: Rotary International v. Rotary Club of Duarte In this case, the Supreme Court weighed a  Ã¢â‚¬Å"States efforts to eliminate gender-based discrimination against its citizens and the constitutional freedom of association asserted by members of a private organization.† A unanimous decision by the court, with a decision written by Justice Brennan, found unanimously that the message of the organization would not be changed by admitting women, and therefore, by the strict scrutiny test, the interest of the state overrode a claim to a First Amendment right of freedom of association and freedom of speech.