Negative Effects Of The Columbian Exchange - 1498 Words

In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue. This was the very first step in starting the Columbian exchange. The Columbian exchange was the process of the New World and the Old World transferring ideas, plants, animals, culture, human populations, and manufactured goods across the Atlantic Ocean throughout the 15th and the 16th century. Even though there were many positive results out of the exchange including the finding of the Americas, new plant and animal species, and the Europeans gaining more land to grow their Old-World crops, the overall effects were negative. The Columbian exchange was not as successful as it was made out to be because there were over ten major disease outbreaks in both the Old and New world, Europeans†¦show more content†¦Although there is very few examples of diseases spreading from the New World to the Old World, that does not mean they weren’t as devastating as the Old-World diseases. Syphilis is a New World disease that was fata l and had severe symptoms. They included genital ulcers, rashes, large tumors, severe pain, dementia, and eventual death. Over time, as the disease evolved, its symptoms changed, becoming more benign and less fatal (Nunn and Qian, p.4). There are two theories of the origins of syphilis is one being the â€Å"Columbian hypothesis† and the other being the â€Å"pre-Columbian hypothesis†. The Columbian hypothesis states that the disease-causing agent Treponema pallidum originated in the New World and was spread in 1493 by Christopher Columbus and his crew who acquired it from the native people of Hispaniola through sexual contact. When men joined the military campaign in Spain they would bring back prostitutes in their camp sites which would amplify the disease throughout Europe when they returned. The pre-Columbian hypothesis states that syphilis has always been in the Old World. since no accounts of the disease were made prior to the 1490s because it could not be differ entiated from other disease with similar symptoms, it was made to believe that it was always around just not classified yet. Many human populations were decimated byShow MoreRelatedEssay on Positive and Negative Effects of the Columbian Exchange788 Words   |  4 PagesAlthough Columbuss revelation of the New World to the Old World caused deadly diseases to both hemispheres, a loss of preservation of native American culture in the New World, and the unhealthy effect of tobacco in the Old World, it made an overall positive impact in lasting terms by the introduction of religion and horses and cattle in the New World and the new agriculture advancements and alpacas. The Eastern-Western hemisphere encounter was obviously positive in the Western hemisphere becauseRead MoreThe Positive Effects Of The Columbian Exchange1051 Words   |  5 PagesThe Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, human populations, diseases, cultures, and ideas throughout the world. The new worlds that had been discovered were a part of this Columbian Exchange, and were exposed to many new and foreign goods as well as people. The Americas, or New World, were faced with harsh treatment from Columbus and his crew, along with the rampant spread of new diseases that took a large toll on the Native populations. The Indies were alsoRead MoreThe Positive Effects Of The Columbian Exchange1643 Words   |  7 PagesThe term â€Å"Columbian Exchange† refers to the massive transfer of life between the Afro-Eurasian and American hemispheres that was precipitated by Columbus’ voyage to the New World . It was known as the widespread interchange of plants, animals, diseases, culture, human populations and technology between Europe and the Americas. After Columbus’ arrival to the Americas, the plant, animal and bacterial life b egan to mix between the Americas, which was also referred to as the â€Å"New World† and Europe,Read MorePositive Effects Of The Columbian Exchange703 Words   |  3 Pagesthe time period known as the Columbian Exchange. Most of what the Europeans took from the Exchange was good, but some of what they brought was devastating to the people in the New World. Although, this time period was very brutal for the Native Americans, the Columbian Exchange resulted in the transmitting of new technologies, an increase in remedies and cures for diseases, and a growth in resources such as food that helped to improve life. During the Columbian Exchange there were civilizations thatRead MoreThe Cultural Impacts Of The Columbian Exchange775 Words   |  4 PagesThe Columbian Exchange By definition, the Columbian Exchange is described as the transatlantic flow of goods, people, and diseases, beginning with Christopher Columbus’s voyages and discovery of the New World in 1492. (Give Me Liberty!) This interpretation, however, does not give this event the acknowledgement it deserves, as the effects of this complex transaction made a significant impact of the modern history of the world. It completely shaped the world humans live in today, from the languagesRead MoreWhat Was The Columbian Exchange? Essay1618 Words   |  7 Pagesresult of this was The Columbian Exchange in which there was a large trade of animals, plants, technology, culture, slaves, diseases, and even new religions. This exchange effected the way Europeans, Americans, Asians, and Africans lived their daily lives. The Columbian exchange was by far one of the most paramount events in the history of world technology, agriculture, culture, and ecology. In this research paper the following will b e answered: What is the Columbian Exchange? Plants and animals transportedRead Morecolumbian exchange817 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ The Columbian Exchange The Columbian exchange created an enormous interchange of various political ideas, cultures, foods, diseases, animals, and people between the old world and the new world, this give and take relationship caused many changes some positive and some negative between the two areas and help redistribute resources between the two hemispheres. There were many positive things that happened as a result of the Columbian exchange. Potatoes and corn became major food sources forRead MoreAmerica Before Columbus And The Columbian Exchange1597 Words   |  7 Pagesthe fact that it was not merely the arrival of conquistadors and colonists that irrevocably changed the landscape of the Americas, but that it was also the coined term known as the â€Å"Columbian Exchange† that afforded these travelers the ability to proliferate so successfully. The basic definition of the Columbian exchange is one that defines the importation of European flora and fauna. It could also loosely represent other imports, both intended and unintended, such as tools, implements, and even diseaseRead MoreThe Age Of Exploration : John Winthrop1546 Words   |  7 Pagesquotes of the first Governor of Massachusetts, John Winthrop. The Age of Exploration ultimately had a more negative impact on the New World because of the invasion of European plantlife, the spread of disease, and the development of the Transatlantic Slave Trade The Age of Exploration contains both benefits and harms to the groups of people, animals, and land that is associated. The damaging effects of the Age of Exploration were directed, for the most part, upon the people and land of the New WorldRead MoreColumbian Exchange Dbq889 Words   |  4 PagesColumbian Exchange BBQ The Columbian Exchange was a major milestone in the diffusion of the New and Old World. In 1492, Columbus arrived in the Bahamas(2), where he first came in contact with Native Americans. There, both exchanged their cultures such as crops, animals, metals, and germs, hence the name, Colombian Exchange. This has brought about both positive and negative effects. While some negative impacts are exemplified by the near-genocide of Amerindians, the demerits are outweighed by the

Phenemenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory Free Essays

In the field of marketing, qualitative methods had to strive to gain a foothold against quantitative methods. Qualitative methods have had the disadvantage of being considered less objective and non-systematic. Such views urged researchers to establish methodologies apt to reflect the integrity of qualitative methods. We will write a custom essay sample on Phenemenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper will discuss three methodologies utilized in the field of marketing: phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory. Each of these will be identified and later compared with each of the others. In doing so, a better understanding of the scope and application of these methodologies is hoped to be attained. Key Characteristics of the Three Methods Phenomenology Phenomenology is a critical reflection on immediate experience and attempts to uncover the features of such (Goulding 2005). It therefore discounts subconscious underpinnings of conscious experiences and attempts to deconstruct the meaning of such experiences at face value. The view is that what we take as latent meanings are actually reflected in manifest experiences as our realities are in actuality constructed (Schipper 1999). What phenomenology attempts to grasp in its study is the deeper meaning of the lived experience in terms of the individual’s relationship with time, space, and personal history (Goulding 2005). Phenomenology gains basis on several assumptions. First, is assumed that persons approach life with stored knowledge which engenders familiarity with given situations (Goulding 2005). However, this knowledge is always incomplete and thus constantly open-ended. Individuals have the capacity however to communicate their experiences with others. Here we come to the second assumption, that language, being the medium of communicating meaning, already establishes a relationship between the individual experience and the object of experience (Goulding 2005). As a result, the common meanings of words are taken as regards what are actually pertained to. Considering that experiences are always open-ended there is an infinite stream of words and concepts that may be used to define particular situations. This allows for the putting aside of the subconscious analysis of text. In the analysis of such data on face value another premise emerges as support, that of a level of commonality among persons thereby affirming the stability of language constructs as communicated to others (Goulding 2005). Should it be the case that present language no longer serves to reflect the lived out experience, individuals may always draw on novel words or metaphors (Schipper 1999). The process of sampling in phenomenology is purposive as data is deemed to be collected from only one source, individuals who have actually gone through the subject experience in the study. Upon collection of the data gathered, texts are read through as a whole or in full (Goulding 2005). After gaining a sense of the holistic portrayal of the text, patterns and differences are sought in the different accounts, a process called intertextuality. The strategy is utilized in order to broaden the analysis to include a wider range of considerations that aid the researcher to form a comprehensive interpretation. Generalizations at a theoretical level are not attempted by phenomenologists as they do not consider themselves theorists. However, recontextualisation is practiced through the sensitisation of previous works as a result of writing and rewriting thus providing the researcher with more universal insights as to established theories. Ethnography Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology. It is the full or partial description of a group as a means of identifying commonalities (Goulding 2005). The driving philosophy behind ethnography is a concern for the nature, construction and maintenance of culture (Goulding 2005). The detached researcher is thus dispelled by such methodology as the researcher is forced to immerse himself in the field and is required to accommodate the native understanding with his own scientific background (Stanton 2005). The aim of ethnographers is to surpass what people say and to look at the culture itself. The application necessarily entails prolonged interaction with member of the particular group being studied in order to find holistic explanations. The process of ethnography focuses on field work as it is necessary that group members be observed in their natural setting. Of importance is the attainment of the genuine narrative of natives to a particular culture. Such data is the ultimate objective of ethnography in a given locality. The reflexive nature of ethnography, while constraining it to adapt to the changes undergone in cultural settings, enables it to utilize different media of recording data. Yet ethnography holds no presumptions regarding the face value of data collected. All data need to be verified and tested for validity as they are taken as mere inferences from which patterns of hypotheses may be identified (Goulding 2005). The process is delineated from the starting point of content analysis. Content analysis is the process of scrutinizing a text and labeling parts of the same based on established concepts (Goulding 2005). There are two perspectives which may be applied in the analysis of data. The emic perspective is from the insider viewpoint and is considered the very heart of the culture while the etic perspective is the outsider view drawing from scientific perspectives (Goulding 2005). An ethnographer may be said to have comprehended the subject of the study when he is able to provide the emic perspective from the data gathered. It is assumed that the language of scientific researcher is not sufficient to communicate the experience of the subjects of study (Stanton 2005). After analysis, synthesis is then made through the pooling of the data and the integration of the constructed categories. Given that the established concepts thus far are largely context relative, recontextualisation is needed and is the last step of the process. This final step provides for the abstraction of conclusions to such a level that they are externally valid and generalizable thus producing new or expanded theories (Stanton 2005). How to cite Phenemenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory, Papers

Lukes Three Dimensions of Power Essay Example For Students

Lukes Three Dimensions of Power Essay Lukes Three Dimensions of PowerPower serves to create power. Powerlessness serves to re-enforcepowerlessness(Gaventa,1980:256). Such is the essence of the on goingrelationship between the Powerful and the Powerless of the Appalachian Valleywhere acquiescence of the repressed has become not only common practice but away of life and a means of survival. In his novel Power and Powerlessness, JohnGaventa examines the oppressive and desperate situation of the Appalachian coalminers under the autocratic power of absentee land-owners, local elites, andcorrupt union leaders. His analyses is based on Lukes three-dimensionalunderstanding of power from his book Power: A Radical View. Gaventa applies thethree notions of power to the politics of inequalities in the Appalachian Valleyand, while demonstrating the inadequacies of the first or pluralist approachand the merits of the second and particularly the third dimensions, asserts thatthe interrelationship and reinforcing affect of all three dim ensions isnecessary for an in depth understanding of the total impact of power upon theactions or inactions and conceptions of the powerless(Gaventa:256)This essay will examine Lukes three power dimensions and theirapplicability to Gaventas account of the inequities found in the valleys of theCumberland Mountains. Reasons for the mountain peoples submission and non-participation will be recognized and their nexus with the power relationshipestablished. In this way, Gaventas dissatisfaction with the pluralist approachwill be justified and the emphatic ability of the other two dimensions towithhold issues and shape behaviour will be verified as principal agents ofPower and Powerlessness. The one dimensional view of power is often called the pluralistapproach and emphasizes the exercise of power through decision making andobservable behaviour. Robert Dahl, a major proponent of this view, definespower as occurring in a situation where A has power over B to the extent he canget B to do something that B would not otherwise do(Dahl as cited in Lukes,1974:11). As power therefore is defined in terms of B and the extent to whichA prevails is determined by its higher ratio of successes and defeats over B. Observable behaviour then becomes a key factor in the pluralist approachto power. Dahls Who Governs? expresses the pluralist belief that thepolitical arena is an open system where everyone may participate and expressgrievances which in turn lead to decision making. Those who proposealternatives and initiate issues which contribute to the decision making processare demonstrating observable influence and control over those who failed alltogether to express any interest in the political process. The Pluralist approach assumes that in an open system, all people, notjust the elite, would participate in decision making if they felt stronglyenough about an issue and wanted their values to be expressed and represented. Non-participation therefore is thought to express a lack of grievances and aconsensus with the way the leaders are already handling the system. Politicalinaction is not a problem within the one-dimensional system, it merely reflectsapathy of ordinary citizens with little interest or knowledge for politicalmatters, and their acceptance of the existing system which they see as rewardingmutual benefits to society. While politics is primarily an elite concern to the pluralist, ordinarypeople can have a say if they become organized, and everyone has indirectinfluence through the right to the franchise in the electoral process. Pluralism recognizes a heterogeneous society composed of people belonging tovarious groups with differing and competing interests. Conflict is thereforealso recognized as not only an expected result but as a necessary instrumentwhich enables the determination of a ruling class in terms of who the winner is. Dahl,(as cited in Lukes,1974:18) states:Who prevails in decision-making seems the best way to determine which individual and groups havemore power in social life because direct conflictbetween actors presents a situation most approximatingan experimental test of their capacities to affect outcome. Both Lukes and Gaventa put forward the notion that restricting youranalyses of a power situation to the one dimensional model can skew yourconclusions. If you limit yourself to this approach your study will be impairedby a pluralistic biased view of power. Where the first dimension sees power inits manifest functions of decision making over key issues raising observableconflict due to policies raised through political participation, it ignores theunobservable mechanisms of power that are sometimes just as or even moreimportant. Many times power is exercised to prevent an issue from being raised andto discourage participation in the political arena. Potential issues andgrievances are therefore not voiced and to assume this means that they do notexist would be an outright deviation from fact. By restricting analyses to whatis expressed and to observable behaviour and overt conflict only, you miss anypreference not expressed because of fear of sanctions, manipulation, coercionand force. This critique of the behaviourial focus and the recognition ofunobservable factors of power is discussed in the two-dimensional view of powerdeveloped by Bachrach and Baratz by which power is exercised not just uponparticipants within the decision making process but also towards the exclusionof certain participants and issues altogether(Schattsneider, as cited inLukes,1974:16). This theory proposes that political organizations develop amobilization of bias in favour of the exploitation of certain kinds ofconflict and the suppression of others some issues are organized in whileothers are organized out(Ibid.,16). The first dimension claims there is an open system and althoughadmitting that political resources are not distributed equally, they are alsonot centralized in one groups hands. Everyone has the opportunity to use otherresources and be heard. The second approach however, sees a monopolistic systemof inequalities created and maintained by the dominant power. The elite havethe means and the political resources to prevent political action that would notbenefit themselves and to push forward those that would. The Elite thereforedetermine the agenda of both decision making and non-decision making and in sodoing establish their dominance and the subordinance and compliance of those onthe bottom of the power hierarchy. Although the two dimensional approach to power delves deeper than thefirst into the nature of power and powerlessness by involving analyses ofpotential issues, grievances, nondecision-making and non-participation, BothLukes and Gaventa find that it is on the same level as the first dimension inthat it also emphasizes observable conflict only.Of course it is true thatthe first does stress only overt while the second stresses both overt and/orcovert conflict. Nonetheless, an affinity between the two results in theirbelief that where there is conflict, there is an element of power in decisionmaking and, for the second dimension, in nondecision-making. Barach and Baratz(as cited in Lukes,1974:19) states that if there is no conflict, overt orcovert, the presumption must be that there is consensus on the prevailingallocation of values, in which case nondecision-making is impossible. Here,there is obviously no consideration of latent conflict or attention as to howinterests not consciously articulated may fit into the power relationship. Lukes identifies manipulation and authority as two forms of power whichdo not necessarily involve evident conflict. People abide by the power ofauthority because they either respect or accept its legitimacy. Compliance tothe power of manipulation often goes unrecognized by the conformer because focusis placed on irrelevant matters and the key aim is downplayed. In neither isthere observable (overt or covert) conflict, but latent conflict occurs becausethe individual may be agreeing to something contrary to their interests withouteven knowing. The three dimensional view of power then, criticizes the behaviourialfocus of the first two dimensions and adopts the consideration of hidden socialforces and conflict which exercise influence by shaping the consciousness of theindividual or organization. This view strays from the others in that it focusesnot only on decisions and nondecisions but on other ways to control thepolitical agenda which are not made deliberately by the choice of individuals orgroups. The third mechanism of power seeks to identify the means through whichpower influences, shapes or determines conceptions of necessities, possibilities,and strategies of challenge in situation of conflict(Gaventa,1980:15). Inother words, it involves specifying how A gets B to believe and choose to act ina way that reinforces the bias of the system, advancing the cause of A andimpairing that of B, usually in the form of compliance. Such processes can take place in a direct and intended way through mediaand communication. A takes control of the information channels and B issocialized into accepting, believing and even supporting the political notionsinstilled by A. The shaping of individuals conceptions can also take placeindirectly or even unintentionally through ones membership in a social structure. Patterns of behaviour, norms and accepted standards apparent in the action andinaction of the group are automatically adopted. Social legitimations aredeveloped around the dominant, and instilled as beliefs or roles in thedominated (Gaventa,1980:15). Passive acceptance of situations or circumstances that are in conflictwith ones interests occur even when the subordinated realise they are beingrepressed. They submit quietly because of fear of sanctions but also becausethey have gone through a psychological adaptation to the state of being withoutpower (Gaventa:16). They recognize their powerlessness and see no possibilityto reverse it and therefore submit to their hopeless situation with lethargicacceptance. Iliad Aias EssayWithin the Appalachian area itself there developed a local elite who rankednext in the class hierarchy. They were the men of wealth, and fine backgrounds,and politics was not new for them(Gaventa,1980:59). They were usually those inpositions of political leadership where they could benefit the company andpromote its best interests. Next were a class of small entrepreneurs andprofessionals who were attracted to the booming city by its promising commercialfuture. The bottom of the hierarchy consisted of labourers, miners and othermanual labour workers. This class was composed mainly of those who wereoriginally from the region and had come from a rural background, while theupper classes had been derived primarily of those attracted to the areabecause of its economic potential. Mobility was of a horizontal nature, thecoming together in one area of various representatives of pre-existing stratafrom other areas(Gaventa,1980:57). The workers were therefore destined to poverty and inequality, but alsohad to endure such things as poor and even dangerous working conditions with fewhealth benefits and little compensation. And one cannot forget the ongoingdemise of their valley as entire mountain sides were stripped away and the airand water were blackened with millions of tiny coal particles. Why then, in this state of economic, social and even environmentaldepravation did the people not cry out with enough strength to be heard? Whilenearby mining communities experiencing similar conditions responded withmilitant, collective organizations, Middlesborough expressed grievances butnever took the form of organized action or went as far as creating aconsciousness of the situation. The first, second and third dimensions of powerwould give different reasons for this in answering how the Association was ableto maintain the new order they had created and the quiescence of a peopleamongst their condition of poverty and inequality. The pluralist approach would recommend using the democratic politicalprocess of the electoral system in determining the legitimacy of those in powerand of their policies and practices. If the leaders who have been elected bythe people and for the people do not voice concerns about the existing system orthe desire for change, it must be assumed that there were no concerns butinstead an overall approval of the status quo. The people of Middlesborough hada choice between local and Company candidates and with few exceptionscontinued to place their support in the latter. Even within their own unionswhere leadership had become increasingly dictatorial and Company biased, theworkers remained loyal to the existing leaders and opposed the reform movement. By considering only the face value of voting practices, one would haveto agree that the Appalachian miners appear to be in accordance with themanagement of the existing system and their place within it. The seconddimension of power would disagree, however, and would explain the maintenance ofthe system and the compliance of the people as a result of the Companys controlover the political apparatus. The longstanding political science maxim that low socio-economic status,poor education and lack of information, translate into low politicalparticipation would be admissible in the second dimensional view. The elitemade up a closely-knit group of political leaders in Appalachia who madedecisions to advance their causes more than those of the Mountaineers. Therewas little regard for what law there was and money ruled theday(Gaventa,1980:59). This could help explain why Acts were passed to protectthe rights of the Company while demands for miners rights rarely even made it tothe courthouse. This supports the view that non-participation was not theresult of apathy but of a caste system, and that non-issues did not mean lack ofgrievances but lack of opportunity to voice them. This does not, however, support the documented cases where workersthemselves did participate, although minimally, and wilfully voted forcandidates who were backers of the Company. This discrepancy can, nevertheless,be explained with Bachrach and Baratzs use of the term power in its sense asthe securing of compliance through the threat of sanctions(Lukes,1974:17). Fear is thus presented as reason enough for the mountaineers to express supportin the form of a vote, even though it is not an accurate portrayal of theirposition. Traditional political dominance in the Clearfork Valley belonged to agroup of local landowners called The Family who maintained their powerposition by serving as mediators between the Company and community gainingfurther power as brokers of favours concerning jobs or hometenure(Gaventa,1980:143). The Family was associated with Company housing,welfare and employment, and in order to receive any benefits, one had to be intheir good graces. Even now, people say those who live in company housing orwork in mines on company land are expected to vote in the Familysfavour(Gaventa,1982:143). As brokers of benefits, they were also capable of taking them away andimposing sanctions. Many, for example, would not spend their food stampsanywhere but the Company store where prices were higher, with the fear that theywould lose their welfare or even be evicted as a consequence. The people weretherefore quite aware that by accommodating the Company leaders with theirsupport, they stood a chance at being granted certain benefits. Conversely, ifone were to advance the cause of the reform movement and upset the system, lifecould be made very difficult for them. While the benefits of the status quoare high for the powerful, the costs of challenge are potentially higher for thepowerless (Gaventa, 1980: 145). Lukes second dimension of power explains how the Association was able tomaintain its dominance and the quiescence of the people in terms of creating apolitical apparatus to organize certain issues and participants in, and othersout, as well as impose recognizable sanctions. Further analyses, however, wouldrequire a look at the less obvious controls which stemmed from the shaping andinstilling of an ideological apparatus in support of the Company among theordinary citizens. This would describe Lukes third dimension where power is executed in amore subtle way. It is one which shapes the outcome of choice while allowingthe chooser to believe that, in fact, a choice has been made(Gaventa,1980:63). The Mountaineers non-challenge then, although appearing to be a freely chosenstate of quiescence was actually more of an imposed choice. By both deliberateand unintentional means, the consciousness of the people was slanted to adoptthe newly created Industrial ideology. Gaventa identifies four observable waysthat the Association was able to maintain their hegemony. Conditioning the peoples wants involved first a perversion ofinformation which exaggerated benefits of the industrial order and downplayedits oppressive effects upon them. The mountain valley had drawn in millions ofdollars, attracted all kinds of investors, and created hundreds of jobs. Inaddition to this it also became a vacation ground for thewealthy(Gaventa,1980:63) where luxurious hotels were built and a new leisureclass developed. This lifestyle contrasted drastically with that of the labourers livingin dilapidated shacks, yet a working class consciousness failed to develop. This is because an equal opportunity ethic was emphasized, stressing the beliefthat by hard work these benefits were attainable by all. Social stratificationwas therefore accepted by most workers and instead of participating equally,they chose to splurge what little money they had on alcohol which was the onlyway they knew to replicate the pattern (of enjoyment of luxuries) in a lesserstyle(Gaventa,1980:65). The appeal of the new industrial orderand its economic benefits was enhanced by the debasement of the mountaineerstraditional way of life and culture. The two were in direct contrast so theglorification of the first meant the degradation of the other. The old culturewas criticized as a dirty, primitive and meagre way of life while the new orderwas proclaimed for its virtues of civilization and progress. Miners weretherefore socialized to strive for membership under the new order and to beashamed of the old. Imposing values took on a third form in the process of changing names oftowns, schools and other cultural establishments. Names that had been familiarto the old system were changed to those derived from the new. Only Companyworkplaces and mines kept their local names. In this way, ties to the past weresevered and a clear path for a new society was created. Symbols play animportant part in the way people interpret their society. By manipulatinglinguistic symbols the Association was shaping the societal consciousness. Bythe imposition of one identity over another in the cultural arena, and byallowing names to lend the appearance of local possession in the workplace arena(where there was none at all) the development of a counter-hegemony was madeless likely(Gaventa,1980:67). The creation of a set of controls in the form of political andideological constructs resulted in a shaping and influencing away from (themountaineers) stock to participation in the ways and values of the neworder(Gaventa,1980:68). Conformity to the extent where contradictions ofconscience go unnoticed because workers are no longer certain of theirorientation occurred repeatedly and was the main reason challenge was rare. It must be noted, however, that the workers of Middlesborough were notcompletely inact

The Discipline of Organizational Psychology Tools and Techniques

Introduction The discipline of psychology is largely concerned with interpretation and analysis of human behavior. On the same note, organizational psychology also seeks to offer in-depth understanding of how organizations are affected by the available human resource. Nonetheless, this branch of psychology mainly relates human behavior within organization context. The initiative behind this analysis is to develop tools and techniques that are capable of eliciting the best behavior among employees. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Discipline of Organizational Psychology: Tools and Techniques specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Additionally, it is also worth to note that when employees exhibit desired organizational behavior, the success of impacted organizations is quite often guaranteed. It is also against this backdrop that organizational psychology has become a necessity especially during this era of globaliza tion. The latter has elevated competition among organizations. Consequently, they are expected to improve their functionality in order to survive this cut-throat competition. What is Organizational Psychology? According to Jex and Britt (2008), organizational psychology is a branch of psychology that employs scientific techniques to study individual and group behavior within organizational set up. During this study, technical psychological principles are integrated with scientific research methods in order to analyze various factors that affect human behavior in organizations. Moreover, this study seeks to expose elements that affect individual and group behavior negatively and consequently how this negativity impacts on productivity (Kevin, 2005). Similarly, organizational psychology aims at eliminating negative elements in human behavior in order to improve group performance, which is expected to translate to optimization in organizational output. In practice, organizational psyc hology also explores whether groups perform better under formal or informal workplace environments (Kevin, 2005). The latter author presumes the fact that some of the principles of organizational psychology is what has compelled most technological organizations to adopt informal working environments as part of improving workforce performance. This may be attributed to the fact that formal and informal organizations do embrace various procedures and bureaucracies while dealing with their workforce and subsequently, these elements might impact on employees’ behavior either positively or negatively (Jex Britt, 2008). Therefore, organizational psychology seeks to identify bottlenecks that tend to attract negative workforce behavior and consequently inject changes to revert negative performance. Evolution of the Field of Organizational Psychology The historical evolution of organizational psychology can be attributed to various personalities. However, the mammoth contribution of Frederick Winslow Taylor at the beginning of 19th century had the most impact in development of its tenets (Jex Britt, 2008). Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Talyor came up with the idea of technical administration whereby he proposed participatory decision making between managers ands employees (Jex Britt, 2008). At the initial stages, most organizational psychologists held the belief that economic incentives contributed very little towards employees’ performance since no amount of monetary payout can compensate the kind of input employees commit at workplace. Furthermore, philosophical views by Max Weber were of great importance to the progression of organizational psychology (Jex Britt, 2008). Weber perceived governance as bureaucratic and proposed that if workers knew what was expected of them, they would highly likely perform well than when their duties were dictated by bureaucratic managers (Jex Britt, 2008). On the same note, Weber introduced the element of scientific research to organizational psychology when he studied several organization features such as guidance and authority. However, although numerous publications on the effect of employee motivation on organization performance came to be in the 1950s, it was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s when organizational psychology came to be established as a researchable field (Jex Britt, 2008). Following this discovery, subsequent researches exposed a very interesting psychological aspect on the relationship between human behavior and job attitudes/ performance (Jex Britt, 2008). Consequently, researches also noted another important aspect that employees’ behavior within an organization are defined by both group and organization composition (Jex Britt, 2008). These aspects have interested organizational psychology researchers up to date as they seek new discoveries aimed a t modifying human behavior towards organizations success. Compare and Contrast Organizational Psychology with at Least Two Related Disciplines Organizational Behavior Organization psychology is closely related to the discipline of organizational behavior. The two fields exhibit some similarities if the variable under investigation has to do with employees’ behavior (Jex Britt, 2008). Kevin (2005) underscores that the main concern in organizational behavior is to study relationship between human behavior and their organization. Similarly, organization psychology seeks to expose the underlying elements of human behavior that impacts an organization either positively or negatively. The above notion implies that whenever these two disciplines carry out studies aimed at understanding how various elements of human behavior interact with organizational performance, then any disparity between the two is almost non-existent ((Jex Britt, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Discipline of Organizational Psychology: Tools and Techniques specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the main disparity between them is evident in their definitions since organization behavior underpins close relationship to organization itself and not entirely on human behavior. Additionally, whereas organizational psychology restricts itself to psychology in order to establish how organizational procedures and adjustments modifies human behavior, organization behavior extends beyond the borders of psychology and seeks answers from sociology, economics as well as anthropology in an attempt to understand how these factors affect organizational performance (Jex Britt, 2008). Socialization Secondly, organizational psychology can be likened to some elements of organizational socialization. The main concern of organization socialization is to study the orientation and initiation processes that a new employee goes through before they can be fully assimilated into an organizations’ culture (Kevin, 2005). Similarly, organization psychology seeks to understand how socialization process impacts on an employee’s behavior and subsequently whether that behavior elicits negative or positive organization outcome (Kevin, 2005). Whenever an employee joins a new organization he/she ought to be orientated to understand the history, language, politics, goals and values as well as people within that organization. The above elements form the basis for organization socialization research since researchers seek to understand how newcomers override the above processes before they can become fully fledged members (Kevin, 2005). Contrastingly, the most obvious disparity between these two disciplines is that whereas organizational socialization seeks to establish employee socialization process, organization psychology extends its analysis to establish how each process impact on human behavior in o rder to come up with the most effective process that has the least negative impact on organizational performance (Kevin, 2005). The Role of Research and Statistics in the Field of Organizational Psychology Generally, the discipline of psychology is informed via numerous research and statistical data. Apparently, without research, psychological issues would indefinitely remain as speculations because there would be no possibility of proving or disproving these formulated propositions. Research and statistics, therefore, come in handy due the fact that research enables evidence gathering whereas statistics assist in the interpretation of this evidence (Jex Britt, 2008). Similarly, organizational psychology would be incapacitated without research and statistics to advance its tenets (Jex Britt, 2008). Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fact that this subdivision is more scientifically oriented implies that research and statistical interpretation of results is mandatory. Moreover, researchers in this discipline should opt for the most reliable scientific research methods to gather information in order to determine the most appropriate organizational intervention measures (Kevin, 2005). Jex and Britt (2008) underscore that the main goal behind organizational psychology research is to identity the various elements that hinder positive organizational performance. By using statistics, organizational psychologist is able to compare various organizational trends and issues and in the process understand the most common trend across organizations (Kevin, 2005). For instance, an organizational researcher might decide to carry out an insightful study into organizations that are deemed to be successful (Jex Britt, 2008). The information gathered therein might then be used to design and implement organization policies f or an organization whose performance is wanting. Finally, research and statistics are significant since in case of organizational failures, current researchers are able to utilize statistics from prior researches to identify gaps that lead to this failure (Jex Britt, 2008) .Correspondingly, statistical results are more authentic than assumptions. For instance, researchers can utilize various surveying techniques to measure employees’ competence and motivation factors instead of making an assumption that are likely to be biased (Kevin, 2005). Conclusion In a nutshell, although organizational psychology is the least popular in the wider field of psychology, it is quite significant in when operating organizations. Empirical research studies clearly indicate that human asset can either break or make an organization. Therefore, organizational psychology is more than a necessity since by understanding how organizations elements impact on employees’ behavior; managers can mo dify management procedures and bureaucracies to promote performance. Indeed, human resources managers should work hand in hand with organizational psychologists in order to elicit the most productive behavior among employees. References Jex, S. M. Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Kevin, M. (2005).Organizational Psychology and Development: A Reader for Students and Practitioners. Personnel Review, 34(4), 504 – 510. This essay on The Discipline of Organizational Psychology: Tools and Techniques was written and submitted by user Isabela Blackwell to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.